Biodiversity and its conservation

Biodiversity ">

Threats to biodiversity

What are the Threats to Biodiversity?

Extinction is a natural event and, from a geological perspective, routine. We now know that most species that have ever lived have gone extinct. The average rate over the past 200 my is 1-2 species per year, and 3-4 families per my. The average duration of a species is 2-10 million years (based on last 200 million years). There have also been occasional episodes of mass extinction, when many taxa representing a wide array of lifeforms have gone extinct in the same blink of geological time. [see last Fall's lecture on the Emergence Of Complex Life] In the modern era, due to human actions, species and ecosystems are threatened with destruction to an extent rarely seen in earth history. Probably only during the handful of mass extinction events have so many species been threatened, in so short a time.
What are these human actions? There are many ways to conceive of these - let's consider two.
 

Source: World Conservation Monitoring Centre, "Global Biodiversity" Chapman & Hall, London, 1992).

First, we can attribute the loss of species and ecosystems to the accelerating transformation of the earth by a growing human population (GCII). As the human population passes the six billion mark , we have transformed, degraded or destroyed roughly half of the word's forests (GCII). We appropriate roughly half of the world's net primary productivity for human use (GCII). We appropriate most available fresh water (GCII), and we harvest virtually all of the available productivity of the oceans (GCII). It is little wonder that species are disappearing and ecosystems are being destroyed.
Second, we can examine six specific types of human actions that threaten species and ecosystems - the "sinister sextet"
Over-hunting has been a significant cause of the extinction of hundreds of species and the endangerment of many more, such as whales and many African large mammals. Most extinctions over past several hundred years are mainly due to over-harvesting for food, fashion, and profit.

Passenger Pigeons

Commercial hunting, both legal and illegal (poaching), is the principal threat. Snowy egret, passenger pigeon, heath hen are USA examples. At $16,000 per pound, and $40,000 to $100,000 per horn, it is little wonder that some rhino species are down to only a few thousand individuals, with only a slim hope of survival in the wild. The pet and decorative plant trade falls within this commercial hunting category, and includes a mix of legal and illegal activities. The annual trade is estimated to be at least $5 billion, with perhaps 1/4 to 1/3 of it illegal. Sport or recreational hunting causes no endangerment of species where it is well regulated, and may help to bring back a species from the edge of extinction. Many wildlife managers view sport hunting as the principal basis for protection of wildlife.
While over-hunting, particularly illegal poaching, remains a serious threat to certain species, for the future, it is less important than other factors mentioned next.

Habitat loss/degradation/fragmentation is an important cause of known extinctions. As deforestation proceeds in tropical forests, this promises to become THE cause of mass extinctions caused by human activity.
All species have specific food and habitat needs. The more specific these needs and localized the habitat, the greater the vulnerability of species to loss of habitat to agricultural land, livestock, roads and cities. In the future, the only species that survive are likely to be those whose habitats are highly protected, or whose habitat corresponds to the degraded state associated with human activity (human commensals).
Habitat damage, especially the conversion of forested land to agriculture (and, often, subsequent abandonment as marginal land), has a long human history. It began in China about 4,000 years ago, was largely completed in Europe by about 400 years ago, and swept across USA over the past 200 years or so. Viewed in this historical context, we are now mopping up the last forests of Pacific Northwest.
In the new world tropics, lowland, seasonal, deciduous forest began to disappear after 1500 with Spanish and Portuguese colonization of the New World. These were the forested regions most easily converted to agriculture, and with a more welcoming climate. The more forbidding, tropical humid forests came under attack mainly in 20th C, under the combined influences of population growth, inequitable land and income distribution, and development policies that targeted rain forests as the new frontier to colonize.
Tropical forests are so important because they harbor at least 50%, and perhaps more, of world's biodiversity. Direct observations, reinforced by satellite data, documents that these forests are declining. The original extent of tropical rain forests was 15 million km². Now there remains about 7.5-8 million km², so half is gone. The current rate of loss is estimated at near 2% annually (100,000 km² destroyed, another 100,000 km² degraded). While there is uncertainty regarding the rate of loss, and what it will be in future, the likelihood is that tropical forests will be reduced to 10-25% of their original extent by late 21^st C. Habitat fragmentation is a further aspect of habitat loss that often goes unrecognized. The forest, meadow, or other habitat that remains generally is in small, isolated bits rather than in large, intact units. Each is a tiny island that can at best mai ntain a very small population. Environmental fluctuations, disease, and other chance factors make such small isolates highly vulnerable to extinction. Any species that requires a large home range, such as a grizzly bear, will not survive if the area is too small. Finally, we know that small land units are strongly affected by their surroundings, in terms of climate, dispersing species, etc. As a consequence, the ecology of a small isolate may differ from that of a similar ecosystem on a larger scale.
For the future, habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation combined is the single most important factor in the projected extinction crisis.

Invasion of non-native species is an important and often-overlooked cause of extinctions. The African Great Lakes - Victoria, Malawi and Tanganyika - are famous for their great diversity of endemic species, termed "species flocks", of cichlid fishes. In Lake Victoria, a single, exotic species, the Nile Perch, has become established and may cause the extinction of most of the native species, by simply eating them all. It was a purposeful introduction for subsistence and sports fishing, and a great disaster.

Of all documented extinctions since 1600, introduced species appear to have played a role in at least half. The clue is the disproportionate number of species lost from islands: some 93% of 30 documented extinctions of species and sub-species of amphibians and reptiles, 93% of 176 species and sub-species of land and freshwater birds, but only 27% of 114 species and subspecies of mammals. Why are island species so vulnerable, and why is this evidence of the role of non-indigenous species?
Islands are laboratories for evolution ( occur when the removal of one species (an extinction event) or the addition of one species (an invasion event) affects the entire biological system. Domino effects are especially likely when two or more species are highly inter-dependent, or when the affected species is a "keystone" species, meaning that it has strong connections to many other species (GCI).
The seeds of the tree Calvaria major, now found exclusively on the island of Mauritius, must pass through the abrasive gut of a large animal in order to germinate. Their tough seed coats are protection against digestion, but also a kind of living coffin, for the seed can not germinate unless abraded. None of the animals currently on Mauritius have that ability. The dodo (a 25 kg pigeon), hunted to extinction in the late 17th century, probably was the key to recruitment in this species. Some seeds, abraded, roughened, and excreted by dodos, germinated and grew. Today, no seeds germinate, and only a few very old trees now survive. The blackfooted ferret was once very abundant in the western prairies. It preyed upon prairie dogs and used their burrows to nest in. Poisoning of prairie dogs has greatly reduced their abundance, and the blackfooted ferret is now the rarest mammal in North America
Pollution from chemical contaminants certainly poses a further threat to species and ecosystems. While not commonly a cause of extinction, it likely can be for species whose range is extremely small, and threatened by contamination. Several species of desert pupfish, occurring in small isolated pools in the US southwest, are examples. 
Climate change: A changing global climate threatens species and ecosystems. The distribution of species (biogeography) is largely determined by climate, as is the distribution of ecosystems and plant vegetation zones (biomes) [GCI]. Climate change may simply shift these distributions but, for a number of reasons, plants and animals may not be able to adjust.
The pace of climate change almost certainly will be more rapid than most plants are able to migrate The presence of roads, cities, and other barriers associated with human presence may provide no opportunity for distributional shifts. Parks and nature reserves are fixed locations. The climate that characterizes present-day Yellowstone Park will shift several hundred miles northward. The park itself is a fixed location. For these reasons, some species and ecosystems are likely to be eliminated by climate change. Agricultural production likely will show regional variation in gains and losses, depending upon crop and climate.
As a consequence of these multiple forces, many scientists fear that by end of next century, perhaps 25% of existing species will be lost.

Biodiversity

1. What is Biodiversity?

What is biological diversity ? In its narrowest sense this term refers to the number of species on the planet, and it also is used more broadly as an umbrella term. Biological diversity refers to the variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur. Diversity can be defined as the number of different items and their relative frequency. For biological diversity, these items are organized at many levels, ranging from complete ecosystems to the chemical structures that are the molecular basis of heredity. Thus, the term encompasses different ecosystems, species, genes, and their relative abundance (Office of Technology Assessment, 1987). Or to paraphrase: number and variety of species, ecological systems, and the genetic variability they contain.
The simplest representation is:
 

Group	Number of Described Species
Bacteria and blue-green algae	4,760
Fungi	46,983
Algae	26,900
Bryophytes (mosses and liverworts)	17,000
Gymnosperms (conifers)	750
Angiosperms (flowering plants)	250,000
Protozoans	30,800
Sponges	5,000
Corals and Jellyfish	9,000
Roundworms and earthworms	24,000
Crustaceans	38,000
Insects	751,000
Other Arthropods and minor invertebrates	132,461
Mollusks	50,000
Starfish	6,100
Fishes (teleosts)	19,056
Amphibians	4,184
Reptiles	6,300
Birds	9,198
Mammals	4,170
Total	1,435,662

Three pie charts (number of species of all kinds, number of animal species, number of plant species) show the same information diagramatically.



These numbers reflect a huge amount of scientific study. In order for a species to be included on the above list, it was examined by a specialist, who carefully compared its features to those of all similar species. Then, once satisfied that the species in hand was different from all known forms, the specialist published a thorough description including drawings, counts of hairs along forelegs, length of measurable parts such as limbs and antennae, photographs, etc. The new species has then been described, and is added to our list of "known" species.
Remarkably, our estimates of the number of unknown species greatly exceed our count of the number of known species. Most experts estimate the world's species diversity at 10 to 30 million, but that is very approximate. Only 1.4 million species are "known to science" -- meaning that they have been classified by a specialist. The estimates of 10 to 30 million species are based on expert opinion of how many species are yet to be formally identified. One study of insects in the forest canopy found 5 out of 6 to be new species. Even vertebrates are not completely known -- it is estimated that nearly half of the freshwater fishes of South America are undescribed. New finds are made continuously in the tropics, and exploration of deep-sea hydrothermal vents recently led to the discovery not just of new species, but of new life forms at the family level (20 families or sub-families). When you consider that virtually every species has its own parasite, and how many groups such as nematodes and bacteria have yet to be well-studied, it is apparent that the estimates of 10 to 30 million are not out of line.
 

The global distribution of biodiversity -- its geography -- is interesting in its own right, and relevant to conservation. Biological diversity is greatest near the equator, and declines towards higher latitudes . Tropical rain forests are especially known for their exceptional diversity. Some locations known as "hotspots" harbour an unusually rich local diversity, perhaps because conditions favour evolutionary diversification.

Cut off mark for Group 1 Prelims 2010

Recently we conducted a poll on expected cut off mark for Group 1 Prelims 2010.Lot of people expected cut off to be 85+ and I got lot of mails stating that the cut off will be even low like 80+.I too agree with the argument that the cut off will be around 80.Lets wait until APPSC declares the results some time next month end.All the best to every one.I am pasting the poll results below.

APPSC MATERIAL: APPSC GROUP-1 PRELIMINARY CUT OFF MARK

APPSC MATERIAL: APPSC GROUP-1 PRELIMINARY CUT OFF MARK

Group-1 Prelims 2010 Key English

Group-1 Prelims 2010 Key English

Mail regarding Group 1 prelims 2010 cut off

Hi Friends,

I have got some information regarding cut-off mark for APPSC Group-I screening test, so I would like to share it with you all.

Andhra pradesh public service commission (APPSC) conducted Group-1 preliminary examination on 05/09/2010.This appsc group i paper contains 150 questions of objectice multiple type questions.These questions has to be answered in 150 minutes that is two and half an hour time.Each questions carry 1 mark. That means this exam is for 150 marks.Total 1,90,000 candidates applied for this exam. Out of this number only 47.5% attended the preliminary exam.
This is only a screening test which means these marks are considered only to select candidates to main exam in the ratio of 1:50. As there is 199 posts generally 10,000 aspirants are going to permitted to take main exam.Out of which 1:2 ratio is going to be called for interview / personality test.Final selection depends on Mains and Interview marks.There is no reservation or quota in selecting candidates for main exam from preliminary examination.

As per the experts opinion question paper is relatively not easy or more than average.

The cutoff marks estimation vary from expert to expert.

Generally it is expected between 75 to 85 marks.

With regards

Manoj Kumar Srirangam

APPSC GROUP 1 PRELIMS 2010 KEY

Prelims key Part 1

Prelims Key Part 2

APPSC GROUP 1 PRELIMS 2010 KEY

1.total solar eclipse of 21st century -- Solar eclipse of July 22, 2009
2. No country has the outline given,so thhey might go for IRAN AS THE ANSWER

3.State map outline is Orissa

4.District map outline is Khammam

5.Outer layer of earth is Crust

6.major ocean of the world is Pacific Ocean

7.Latitudes are imaginary lines drawn from east-west

8.Bandipur national park is in karnataka

9.on 21st march and 21st september sun rays fall directly on Equator reference

10.

11.first coalition government formed at centre is Janata party

12.article 243-G is related to Powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats.

13.gandhiji launced his first satyagraha in south africa is 1906

14.97th constitutional amendment is limiting size of cabinet to 10%

15.the method which became popular in recent past for employing persons is Outsourcing.

16.sustainable developmet exactly means improving conditions of present generation without affecting the needs of future generation.

17.president rule was imposed in andhra pradesh in 1973 because of # ^ President's rule was imposed because of rebellion from the state ministers against the CM - PV Narasimha Rao. The rebellion was a fallout of the Telengana agitation (Source: "Less fortunate as Chief Minister". The Hindu. 2004-12-24. http://www.hindu.com/2004/12/24/stories/2004122407531200.htm. Retrieved 2007-07-05. ).

18.lowset number of seats won by congress party in andhra pradesh is 1983

19.name of program recently launched in andhra pradesh to merge all anti-poverty programmes is indira kranthi patham

20.providing micro finance arrangements to the poor women for extension of credit is Self help groups

21.Minimum support prices is decided by commission for agricultural costs and prices

22.duration of mid term agricultual credit is ----------------

23.karl pearson coeffiecent of correlation is -1 to +1

24.saving is one of the determinants of growth

25.description which does not explain VAT as per its conceptulization

APPSC GROUP 1 PRELIMS 2010 KEY

I will try my level best to update the blog with the key as soon as the exam is over.We can have discussion on exam questions and key. Watch out this space for key tomorrow.Please try to remember as many questions possible in case if we dont get he paper out of the examination hall.we shall have a discussion in comments section till I get some nice widget for discussion.


ALL THE BEST FOR EXAM.HOPE NO ONE GETS HURT IN TOMORROW'S BATTLE AS EVERY ONE EXPECTS.

Group-1 Prelims Model Papers

Group 1 Prelims Model Papers

APPSC GROUP-1 PREVIOUS PAPERS

Here are few model papers for English medium guys APPSC GROUP-1 PREVIOUS PAPERS

Some Scientific Instruments

Altimeter–An instrument used for measuring altitudes in aircraft.

Ammeter–An instrument for measuring electric currents in amperes.

Anemometer–An instrument for measuring the force and velocity of wind.

Audiometer–An instrument for measuring the intensity of sound.

Audiophone–An instrument for improving imperfect sense of hearing.

Barometer–An apparatus used for measuring the atmospheric pressure.

Calorimeter–An instrument used for measuring quantities of heat.

Carburettor–An apparatus used in an internal combustion engine for charging air with petrol vapour.

Cardiograph–A medical instrument for tracing heart movements.

Chronometer–An instrument kept on board ships for measuring accurate time.

Crescograph–It is used for measuring growth in plants.

Dynamo–The origin of electricity in a dynamo is the transformation of mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Galvanometer–An instrument for measuring electric currents of small magnitude.

Hydrometer–An instrument used for measuring the specific gravity of liquids.

Hydrophone–An instrument for recording sound under water.

Hygrometer–An instrument for measuring humidity in air.

Lactometer–An Instrument for measuring the relative density of milk.

Manometer–An instrument for measuring the pressure of a gases.

Mariner's compass–An apparatus used by sailors to know the direction. The needle always points north-south.

Microphone–An instrument used for converting sound waves into electrical vibrations and to magnify the sound.

Microscope–An instrument used for magnifying minute objects by a lens system.

Odometer–An instrument by which the distance covered by wheeled vehicles is measured.

Phonograph–An instrument for reproducing sound.

Photometer–It is an instrument for measuring the intensity of light; a device for comparing the luminous intensity of sources of light.

Polarimeter–An instrument used for measuring optical activity.

Pyrometer–An instrument for recording high temperatures from a great distance.

Radar–It is an abbreviated form of Radio, Angle, Direction and Range. It is used for detecting the direction and range of an approaching plane by means of radio microwaves.

Rain Gauge–An apparatus for recording rainfall at a particular place.

Radiometer–An instrument for measuring the emission of radiant energy.

Refractometer–An instrument to measure refractive indexes.

Seismometer or Seismograph–An instrument for recording earthquake shocks.

Sextant–An instrument used for measuring the altitude of the sun and other heavenly bodies.

Spectrometer–An instrument for measuring the energy distribution of a particular type of radiation.

Speedometer–An instrument which indicates the speed at which a vehicle is moving.

Spherometer–An instrument for measuring curvature of surfaces.

BUDget-in-Brief 2009 Andhra Pradesh

BUDget-in-Brief 2009

The Basic Structure of the Indian Constitution

Compiled by Venkatesh Nayak

Introduction

The debate on the 'basic structure' of the Constitution, lying somnolent in the archives of India's constitutional history during the last decade of the 20th century, has reappeared in the public realm. While setting up the National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (the Commission), the National Democratic Alliance government (formed by a coalition of 24 national and regional level parties) stated that the basic structure of the Constitution would not be tampered with. Justice M.N. Venkatachalaiah, Chairman of the Commission, has emphasised on several occasions that an inquiry into the basic structure of the Constitution lay beyond the scope of the Commission's work.

The Basic Structure of the Indian Constitution

Appsc Group-1 2008 Prelims Paper English

Appsc Group-1 2008 Prelims Paper English

Research centers in India

Research centers in India

Indian Satellites

India has launched more than 50 satellites of various types since its first attempt in 1975. Satellites have been launched from various vehicles, including American, Russian, European satellite-launch rockets, and the U.S. Space Shuttle. The organisation responsible for Indian satellites is the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).

Indian Satellites

Indian National Movement

• Government of India Act 1858
• Indian National Congress (1885)
• Partition of Bengal (1905)
• Muslim League (1906)
• Swadeshi Movement (1905)
• Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)
• Lucknow Pact (1916)
• Home Rule Movement (1915­1916)
• The Gandhian Era (1918-1947)
• Khilafat Movement (1920)
• The Rowlatt Act (1919)
• Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre (1919)
• Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)
• Chauri Chaura Incident (1922)
• Swaraj Party (1922)
• Simon Commission (1927)
• Dandi March (1930)
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)
• The Government of India Act, 1935
• Quit India Movement (1942)
• Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)
• Interim Government (1946)
• Formation of Constituent Assembly (1946)
• Mountbatten Plan (1947)
• The Indian Independence Act, 1947
• Partition of India (1947)

The East India Company had established its control over almost all parts of India by the middle of the 19th century. There were numerous risings in the first hundred years of British rule in India. They were, however, local and isolated in character. Some of them were led by the nobility who were refusing to accept the changing patterns of the time and wanted the past to be restored. But the risings developed a tradition of resistance offoreign rule, culminating in the 1857 revolt.

The Revolt of 1857, which was called a Sepoy Mutiny by British historians and their imitators in India but described as "the First War of Indian Independence" by many Indian historians, shook the British authority in India from its very foundations.

The Revolt of 1857, an unsuccessful but heroic effort to eliminate foreign rule, had begun. The capture of Delhi and the proclamation of Bahadurshah as the Emperor of Hindustan are a positive meaning to the Revolt and provided a rallying point for the rebels by recalling the past glory of the imperial city.

On May 10, 1857, soldiers at Meerut refused to touch the new Enfield rifle cartridges. The soldiers along with other group of civilians, went on a rampage shouting 'Maro Firangi Ko'. They broke open jails, murdered European men and women, burnt their houses and marched to Delhi. The appearance of the marching soldiers next morning in Delhi was a'signal to the local soldiers, who in turn revolted, seized the city and proclaimed the 80-year old Bahadurshah Zafar, as Emperor of India.

Within a month of the capture of Delhi, the Revolt spread to the different parts of the country. Kanpur, Lucknow, Benaras, Allahabad, Bareilly, Jagdishpur and Jhansi. In the absence of any leader from their own ranks, the insurgents turned to the traditional leaders of Indian society. At Kanpur, NanaSaheb, the adopted son of last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, led the forces. Rani Lakshmi Bai in Jhansi, Begum Hazrat Mahal in Lucknow and .Khan Bahadur in Bareilly were in command. However, apart from a commonly shared hatred for alien rule, the rebels had no political perspective or a definite vision of the future. They were all prisoners of their own past, fighting primarily to regain their lost privileges. Unsurprisingly, they proved incapable of ushering in a new political order.

Government of India Act 1858

Queen Victoria issued a proclamation on November 1, 1858, placing India under direct government of the Crown, whereby:

(a) A viceroy was appointed in India

(b) Princes were given the right to adopt a son (abolition of Doctrine of Lapse)

(c) Treaties were honoured

(d) Religious freedom was restored and equality treatment promised to Indians

The Proclamation was called the 'Magna Carta of Indian Liberty'. The British rule in India was strongest between 1858 and 1905. The British also started treating India as its most precious possession and their rule over India seemed set to continue for centuries to come. Because of various subjective and objective factors which came into existence during this era, the feeling of nationalism in Indians started and grow.

Indian National Congress (1885)

Although the British succeeded in suppressing the 1857 Revolt, they could not stop the growth of political awareness in India. The Indian National Congress was founded in December 1885. It was the visible embodiment of the national awakening in the country. Its founder was an Englishman, Allan Octavian Hume, a retired member of the Indian Civil Service. The Indian leaders, who cooperated with Hume in launching the Congress, were patriots of high character. The first President of the Congress was W.C. Bannerjee.

The aims of the Congress were: promotion of friendship and cooperation amongst the nationalist political workers from the different parts of the country; the eradication of racial, creed or provincial prejudices and promotion of national unity; formulation of popular demands and their presentation before the Government; and, most important of all, the training and organisation of public opinion in the country.

Partition of Bengal (1905)

On December 30, 1898, Lord Curzon took over as the new Viceroy of India. The partition of Bengal came into effect on October 16, 1905, through a Royal Proclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating a new province of East Bengal, which later on became East Pakistan and present day Bangladesh. The government explained that it was done to stimu­late growth of underdeveloped eastern region of the Bengal. But, actually, the main objective was to 'Divide and Rule' the most advanced region of the country at that time.



Muslim League (1906)

In 1906, All India Muslim League was set up under the leader­ship of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimul­lab of Dacca and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk. The League supported the partition of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi Movement, and demanded special safegurds for its community and a separate elec­torates of Muslims. This led to communal differences between Hindus and Muslims.



Swadeshi Movement (1905)

The Swadeshi movement has its genesis in the anti-partition move­ment which was started to oppose the British decision to divide Bengal. With the start of the Swadeshi movement at the turn of the century, the Indian National Movement took a major leap forward.

The Indian National Congress took up the Swadeshi call in Benaras Session, 1905, presided over by G.K. Gokhale, supported the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement of Bengal, Militant Nationalism spearheaded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Aurobindo Ghosh was, however, in favour of extending the movement of the rest of India and carrying it beyond the programme of just Swadeshi and boycott of goods to full-fledged political mass struggle.

Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)

Morley-Minto Reforms were introduced in 1909 during the period when Lord Minto was the Governor­General of India. The reforms envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims besides other constitutional measures. The government thereby sought to create a rift within the Congress on the one hand by winning the support of the moderates,

and on the other, to win favour of Muslims against Bindus. To achieve the latter objective, the reforms introduced the system of separate electorates under which Muslims could only vote for Muslim candidates. This was done to encourage the notion that the political, economic and cultural interests of Hindus and Muslims were separate and not common. Indian political leaders were however dissatisfied by these reforms.

Lucknow Pact (1916)

An important step forward in achieving Hindu-Muslim unity was the Lucknow Pact 1916. Anti­British feelings were generated among the Muslims following a war between Britain and Turkey which opened way for Congress and Mus­lim League unity. Both the Con­gress and the Muslim League held sessions at Lucknow in 1916 and concluded the famous Lucknow Pact. The Congress accepted the separate electorates, and both organizations jointly demanded dominion status for the country.

Hindu-Muslim unity weakened the British attitude and forced the government to announce its future policy. In 1916 a British policy was announced whereby association of Indians was increased and there was to be a gradual development of local self-governing institutions.

Home Rule Movement (1915­1916)

Dr. Annie Besant, inspired by the Irish rebellion, started a Home Rule Movement in India in September 1916. The movement spread rapidly and branches of the Rome Rule League were established all over India. Bal Gangadhar Tilak wholeheartedly supported this movement. Rejoined forces with Dr. Besant and persuaded the Muslim League to support this programme.



The Gandhian Era (1918-1947)

Mahatma Gandhi dominated the Indian political scene from 1918­1947. This period of the Indian National Congress is also referred to as the Gandhian Era. It was the most

intense and eventful phase of India's freedom struggle. Mahatma Gandhi provided the leadership of the highest order and his philosophy of non-violent Satyagraha became the most potent weapon to drive out .the British from the Indian soil.

Khilafat Movement (1920)

The Caliph, Sultan of Turkey, was looked upon by the Muslims as their religious head. During the First World War, when the safety and the welfare of Turkey were threatened by the British thereby weakening the Caliph's position, Indian Muslims adopted an aggressive anti-British attitude. The two brothers, Mohammed Ah and Shaukat Ali launched an anti­British movement in 1920-the Khilafat Movement for the restoration.



The Rowlatt Act (1919)

While trying to appease Indians, the British Government was following a policy of repression. Throughout the First World War, repression of freedom fighters had continued. The revolutionaries had been hunted down, hanged or im­prisoned. The Government now decided to arm itself with more powers in order to suppress the freedom fighters. In March 1919, it passed the Rowlatt Act. This Act authorised the government to detain any person without trial. The Rowlatt Act came like a sudden blow. The Indians had been promised extension of democracy during the war. They felt humiliated and were filled with anger when they found that their civil liberties were going to be curtailed still further. Unrest gripped the country and a powerful agitation against the Act started. During this agitation, Gandhiji took command of the nationalist movement. March and April 1919 witnessed a remarkable political awakening in the country. There were hartals, strikes and demonstrations at various places. The slogans of Hindu-Muslim unity filled the air.



Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre (1919)

The Government was bent on suppressing the mass agitation. In Bombay; Ahmedabad, Calcutta, Delhi and at other places demonstrators were lathi-charged and fired upon. Gandhiji gave a call for a general hartal on April 6, 1919. The call was responded to with great enthusiasm. The Government decided to resort to repression to suppress the agitation. At this time the British Government committed one of the worst political crimes in modem history. An unarmed but a large crowd had gathered in Jallianwalla Bagh, Amritsar (Punjab) on April, 13, 1919 for a meeting. General Dyer ordered his troops to open fire on them without warning. This massacre of unarmed people (hundreds died and thousands were wounded) in an enclosed place from which there was no exit, was fol­lowed by a reign of terror in several districts under martial law.



Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)

With the Congress support of the Khilafat movement, Hindu-Muslim unity was achieved which encouraged Gandhiji to launch his non-violent, non-cooperation movement. At the Calcutta Session in September 1920, the Congress resolved in favour of the non-violent, non-cooperation movement and defined Swaraj as its ultimate aim. The movement envisaged: (i) Surrender of titles and honorary officers; (ii) Resignation from nominated offices and posts in the local bodies; (iii) Refusal to attend government darbars and official functions and boycott of British courts by the lawyers; (iv) Refusal of general public to offer themselves for military and other government jobs, and boycott of foreign goods, etc.

The non-cooperation movement also saw picketing of shops selling foreign cloth and boycott of the foreign cloth by the followers of Gandhiji.

Chauri Chaura Incident (1922)

The Congress session held at Ahmedabad in December 1921 decided to launch a Civil Disobedience Movement while reiterating its stand on the non-violent, non­cooperation movement of which Gandhiji was appointed the leader. Before Gandhiji could launch the Civil Disobedience Movement, a mob of countrymen at Chauri Chaura, a place near Gorakhpur in D.P., clashed with the police which opened fire. In retaliation the mob burnt the police-station and killed 22 policemen. This compelled Gandhiji to call off the Civil Disobedience Movement on February 12, 1922.

Despite this Gandhiji was arrested and sentenced to six years imprisonment. The Chauri Chaura incident convinced Gandhiji that the nation was not yet ready for the mass-dis6bedience and he prevailed upon Congress Working Committee in Bardoli on February 12, 1922 to call off the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Swaraj Party (1922)

Gandhiji's decision to call off the agitation caused frustration among masses. His decision came in for severe criticism from his colleagues like Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das and N.C. Kelkar, who organized the Swaraj Party. The foundations of the 'Swaraj Party' were laid on January 1, 1923, as the 'Congress­Khilafat-Swarajya Patty'. It proposed then an alternative programme of diverting the movement from widespread civil disobedience programme to restrictive one which would encourage its member to enter into legislative councils (established under Montford Reforms of 1919) by contesting elections in order to wreck the legislature from within and to use moral pressure to compel the authority to concede to the popular demand for self-government.



Simon Commission (1927)

Under the 1919 Act, a statutory commission was to be appointed by the British Government at the end of ten years from the passing of the Act to inquire into the working of the system of government in the country and to recommend further reforms. Thus the commission was scheduled to be appointed in 1929. It was ac­tually appointed two years earlier in 1927. The commission consisted of seven members of the British Parliament. It was headed by Sir John Simon. As all its members were British, the Congress decided to boycott it. The Commission arrived in India in Feb. 1928. It was greeted with black flags and hostile demonstrations everywhere it went. In one such demonstration at Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was seriously injured in a wanton police lathi-charge on the demonstrators. Lalaji died soon after from wounds received during the demonstration.



Dandi March (1930)

Also called the 'Salt Satyagraha'. To achieve the goal of complete independence, Gandhiji launched another civil disobedience movement. Along with 79 followers, Gandhiji started his famous march from Sabarmati Ashram on March 20,1930, for the small village Dandi to break the Salt Law. While Gandhiji was marching to Dandi,

Congress leaders and workers had been busy at various levels with the hard organizational tasks of enrolling volunteers and members, forming grassroot Congress Committees, collecting funds, and touring villages and towns to spread nationalist messages.

On reaching the seashore on April 6, 1930, he broke the Salt Law by picking up salt from the seashore. By picking a handful of salt, Gandhiji inaugurated the Civil Disobedience Movement, a movement that was to remain unsurpassed in the history of the Indian National Movement for the countrywide mass participation it unleashed. The movement became so powerful that it sparked off partriotism even among the Indian soldiers in the Army. The Garhwal soldiers refused to fire on the people at Peshawar.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)

Early in 1931 two moderate statesmen, Sapru and Jayakar, initiated efforts to bring about rapprochement between Gandhiji and the government. Six meetings with Viceroy Lord Irwin finally led to the signing of a pact between the two on March 5, 1931, whereby the Congress called off the movement and agreed to join the Second Round Table Conference. The terms of the agreement included the immediate release of all political prisoners not convicted for violence, the remission of all fines not yet collected, the return of confiscated land not yet sold to third parties, and lenient treatment of all the government officials who had resigned.

Gandhiji and other leaders were released from jail as Irwin agreed to release most political prisoners and to return the properties that had been seized by the governments. The government also conceded the right to make the salt for consumption of villages along the coast, and also the right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing. The Congress on its part, agreed to discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement and to participate in the next Round Table Conference.

The Government of India Act, 1935

The Simon Commission report submitted in 1930 formed the basis for the Government of India Act 1935. The new Government of India Act received the royal assent on August 4, 1935.

The Act continued and extended all the existing features of the Indian constitution. Popular representation, which went back to 1892, dyarchy and ministerial responsibility, which dated from 1921, provincial autonomy, whose chequered history went back to eighteenth century presidencies, communal representation, which first received recognition in 1909, and the safeguards devised in 1919, were all continued and in most cases extended. But in addition there were certain new principles intro­duced. It provided for a federal type of government. Thus, the act:

(a) Introduced provincial autonomy

(b) Abolished dyarchy in provinces I

(c) Made ministers responsible to the legislative and federation at the centre

The Act of 1935 was condemned by nearly all sections of Indian public opinion and was unanimously rejected by the Congress. The Congress demanded instead, the convening of a Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of adult franchise to frame a constitution for an independent India.

Quit India Movement (1942)

On August 8, 1942, the Congress in its meeting at Bombay passed a resolution known as 'Quit India' resolution, whereby Gandhiji asked the British to quit India and gave a call for 'Do or die' to his countrymen. On August 9, 1942, Gandhiji was arrested but the other leaders continued the revolutionary struggle. Violence spread throughout the country, several government officers were destroyed and damaged, telegraph wires were cut and communication paralyzed. The movement was, however, crushed by the government.

Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)

The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945-46. The British Prime Minister, Lord Attlee, made a declaration on March 15, 1946, that British Cabinet Mission would visit India to make recommendations regarding constitutional reforms to be introduced in India. The Cabinet Mission which constituted of Lord Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander visited India and met the representatives of different political parties but a satisfactory solution to the constitutional difficulties could not be found. The Mission envisaged the establishment of a Constituent Assembly to frame the Constitution as well as an interim government. The Muslim League accepted the plan on June 6, 1946, while maintaining its rights of striving for a separate Muslim state. The Congress also partially accepted the plan.

Interim Government (1946)

On September 2, 1946, an inter­im government was formed. Congress members led by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru joined it but the Muslim League did not as it withdrew its earlier acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan.



Formation of Constituent Assembly (1946)

The Constituent Assembly met on December 9, 1946, and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected its President. The Muslim League did not join the Assembly.



Mountbatten Plan (1947)

In March 1947, Lord Mountbatten replaced Lord Wavell. He announced his plan on June 3, 1947. It offered a key to the political and constitutional deadlock created by the refusal of the Muslim League to join the Constituent Assembly formed to frame the Constitution of India. Mountbatten's formula was to divide India but retain maximum unity. The country would be partitioned but so would be Punjab and Bengal, so that the limited Pakistan that emerged would meet both the Congress and the League's position to some extent. The League's position on Pakistan was conceded in that it would be created, but the Congress position on unity would be taken into account to make Pakistan as small as possible. He laid down detailed principles for the partition of the country and speedy transfer of political powers in the form of dominion status to the newly formed dominions of India and Pakistan. Its acceptance by the Congress and the Muslim' League resulted in the birth of Pakistan.



The Indian Independence Act, 1947

The Bill containing the provisions of the Mountbatten Plan of June 3, 1947, was introduced in the British Parliament and passed as the Indian Independence Act,

1947. The Act laid down detailed measures for the partition of India and speedy transfer of political powers to the new government of India and Pakistan.

Partition of India (1947)

In accordance with the Indian Independence Act, 1947, India was partitioned on August 15, 1947 into India and Pakistan. The Act made India and Pakistan independent dominions. Bloodshed and violence marked the exodus of refugees. The state of Kashmir acceded to the Indian Union, after the raiders were helped by Pakistan, in October 1947. Lord Mountbatten was appointed the Governor-General of free1ndia and M.A. Jinnah the first Governor-General of Pakistan.