This document explains about early revolts and emphasizes on different causes of revolt,course of revolt,causes of failure and impact of revolt.
1857 revolt and its impact
A Blog for aspirants of Group 1 service in Andhra Pradesh
Wednesday, November 4, 2009
Tuesday, October 27, 2009
Four D's For A New Kashmir
Dialogue, devolution, demilitarisation and development.
The prime minister's visit to Jammu & Kashmir provides a unique opportunity for New Delhi to build on the vision of Naya Kashmir outlined by Manmohan Singh during his earlier tenure. Kashmir is the ground zero of the India-Pakistan relationship. A signal from Singh on India's willingness to engage its troubled neighbour - in spite of its recalcitrance would generate tremendous enthusiasm within Kashmir. The Kashmiri people know through their own traumatic experience how essential India-Pakistan reconciliation is to ensure durable peace in the state.
Monday, October 26, 2009
Friday, October 23, 2009
Transgenic Animal - Production and Applications
Nowadays, breakthroughs in molecular biology are happening at an unprecedented rate. One of them is the ability to engineer transgenic animals, i.e., animals that carry genes from other species. The technology has already produced transgenic animals such as mice, rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, and cows. Although there are many ethical issues surrounding transgenesis, this article focuses on the basics of the technology and its applications in agriculture, medicine, and industry.
What is a transgenic animal?
There are various definitions for the term transgenic animal. The Federation of European Laboratory Animal Associations defines the term as an animal in which there has been a deliberate modification of its genome, the genetic makeup of an organism responsible for inherited characteristics.
The nucleus of all cells in every living organism contains genes made up of DNA. These genes store information that regulates how our bodies form and function. Genes can be altered artificially, so that some characteristics of an animal are changed. For example, an embryo can have an extra, functioning gene from another source artificially introduced into it, or a gene introduced which can knock out the functioning of another particular gene in the embryo. Animals that have their DNA manipulated in this way are knows as transgenic animals.
The majority of transgenic animals produced so far are mice, the animal that pioneered the technology. The first successful transgenic animal was a mouse. A few years later, it was followed by rabbits, pigs, sheep, and cattle.
Why are these animals being produced? The two most common reasons are:
* Some transgenic animals are produced for specific economic traits. For example, transgenic cattle were created to produce milk containing particular human proteins, which may help in the treatment of human emphysema.
* Other transgenic animals are produced as disease models (animals genetically manipulated to exhibit disease symptoms so that effective treatment can be studied). For example, Harvard scientists made a major scientific breakthrough when they received a U.S. patent (the company DuPont holds exclusive rights to its use) for a genetically engineered mouse, called OncoMouse® or the Harvard mouse, carrying a gene that promotes the development of various human cancers.
How are transgenic animals produced?
Since the discovery of the molecular structure of DNA by Watson and Crick in 1953, molecular biology research has gained momentum. Molecular biology technology combines techniques and expertise from biochemistry, genetics, cell biology, developmental biology, and microbiology.
Scientists can now produce transgenic animals because, since Watson and Crick’s discovery, there have been breakthroughs in:
* recombinant DNA (artificially-produced DNA)
* genetic cloning
* analysis of gene expression (the process by which a gene gives rise to a protein)
* genomic mapping
The underlying principle in the production of transgenic animals is the introduction of a foreign gene or genes into an animal (the inserted genes are called transgenes). The foreign genes “must be transmitted through the germ line, so that every cell, including germ cells, of the animal contain the same modified genetic material.” (Germ cells are cells whose function is to transmit genes to an organism’s offspring.)
To date, there are three basic methods of producing transgenic animals:
* DNA microinjection
* Retrovirus-mediated gene transfer
* Embryonic stem cell-mediated gene transfer
Gene transfer by microinjection is the predominant method used to produce transgenic farm animals. Since the insertion of DNA results in a random process, transgenic animals are mated to ensure that their offspring acquire the desired transgene. However, the success rate of producing transgenic animals individually by these methods is very low and it may be more efficient to use cloning techniques to increase their numbers. For example, gene transfer studies revealed that only 0.6% of transgenic pigs were born with a desired gene after 7,000 eggs were injected with a specific transgene.
1. DNA Microinjection
The mouse was the first animal to undergo successful gene transfer using DNA microinjection. This method involves:
* transfer of a desired gene construct (of a single gene or a combination of genes that are recombined and then cloned) from another member of the same species or from a different species into the pronucleus of a reproductive cell
* the manipulated cell, which first must be cultured in vitro (in a lab, not in a live animal) to develop to a specific embryonic phase, is then transferred to the recipient female
2. Retrovirus-Mediated Gene Transfer
A retrovirus is a virus that carries its genetic material in the form of RNA rather than DNA. This method involves:
* retroviruses used as vectors to transfer genetic material into the host cell, resulting in a chimera, an organism consisting of tissues or parts of diverse genetic constitution
* chimeras are inbred for as many as 20 generations until homozygous (carrying the desired transgene in every cell) transgenic offspring are born
The method was successfully used in 1974 when a simian virus was inserted into mice embryos, resulting in mice carrying this DNA.
3. Embryonic Stem Cell-Mediated Gene Transfer
This method involves:
* isolation of totipotent stem cells (stem cells that can develop into any type of specialized cell) from embryos
* the desired gene is inserted into these cells
* cells containing the desired DNA are incorporated into the host’s embryo, resulting in a chimeric animal
Unlike the other two methods, which require live transgenic offspring to test for the presence of the desired transgene, this method allows testing for transgenes at the cell stage.
How do transgenic animals contribute to human welfare?
The benefits of these animals to human welfare can be grouped into areas:
* Agriculture
* Medicine
* Industry
The examples below are not intended to be complete but only to provide a sampling of the benefits.
1. Agricultural Applications
a) breeding
Farmers have always used selective breeding to produce animals that exhibit desired traits (e.g., increased milk production, high growth rate). Traditional breeding is a time-consuming, difficult task. When technology using molecular biology was developed, it became possible to develop traits in animals in a shorter time and with more precision. In addition, it offers the farmer an easy way to increase yields.
b) quality
Transgenic cows exist that produce more milk or milk with less lactose or cholesterol, pigs and cattle that have more meat on them, and sheep that grow more wool18. In the past, farmers used growth hormones to spur the development of animals but this technique was problematic, especially since residue of the hormones remained in the animal product.
c) disease resistance
Scientists are attempting to produce disease-resistant animals, such as influenza-resistant pigs, but a very limited number of genes are currently known to be responsible for resistance to diseases in farm animals.
2. Medical Applications
a) xenotransplantation
Patients die every year for lack of a replacement heart, liver, or kidney. For example, about 5,000 organs are needed each year in the United Kingdom alone.25 Transgenic pigs may provide the transplant organs needed to alleviate the shortfall. Currently, xenotransplantation is hampered by a pig protein that can cause donor rejection but research is underway to remove the pig protein and replace it with a human protein.
b) nutritional supplements and pharmaceuticals
Products such as insulin, growth hormone, and blood anti-clotting factors may soon be or have already been obtained from the milk of transgenic cows, sheep, or goats.3,12,23 Research is also underway to manufacture milk through transgenesis for treatment of debilitating diseases such as phenylketonuria (PKU), hereditary emphysema, and cystic fibrosis.
In 1997, the first transgenic cow, Rosie, produced human protein-enriched milk at 2.4 grams per litre. This transgenic milk is a more nutritionally balanced product than natural bovine milk and could be given to babies or the elderly with special nutritional or digestive needs. Rosie’s milk contains the human gene alpha-lactalbumin.
c) human gene therapy
Human gene therapy involves adding a normal copy of a gene (transgene) to the genome of a person carrying defective copies of the gene. The potential for treatments for the 5,000 named genetic diseases is huge and transgenic animals could play a role. For example, the A. I. Virtanen Institute in Finland produced a calf with a gene that makes the substance that promotes the growth of red cells in humans.
3. Industrial Applications
In 2001, two scientists at Nexia Biotechnologies in Canada spliced spider genes into the cells of lactating goats. The goats began to manufacture silk along with their milk and secrete tiny silk strands from their body by the bucketful. By extracting polymer strands from the milk and weaving them into thread, the scientists can create a light, tough, flexible material that could be used in such applications as military uniforms, medical microsutures, and tennis racket strings.
Toxicity-sensitive transgenic animals have been produced for chemical safety testing. Microorganisms have been engineered to produce a wide variety of proteins, which in turn can produce enzymes that can speed up industrial chemical reactions.
What are the ethical concerns surrounding transgenesis?
This article focuses on the benefits of the technology; however, thoughtful ethical decision-making cannot be ignored by the biotechnology industry, scientists, policy-makers, and the public. These ethical issues, better served in their own article, include questions such as:
* Should there be universal protocols for transgenesis?
* Should such protocols demand that only the most promising research be permitted?
* Is human welfare the only consideration? What about the welfare of other life forms?
* Should scientists focus on in vitro (cultured in a lab) transgenic methods rather than, or before, using live animals to alleviate animal suffering?
* Will transgenic animals radically change the direction of evolution, which may result in drastic consequences for nature and humans alike?
* Should patents be allowed on transgenic animals, which may hamper the free exchange of scientific research?
Conclusion
Interestingly, the creation of transgenic animals has resulted in a shift in the use of laboratory animals — from the use of higher-order species such as dogs to lower-order species such as mice — and has decreased the number of animals used in such experimentation, especially in the development of disease models. This is certainly a good turn of events since transgenic technology holds great potential in many fields, including agriculture, medicine, and industry.
What is a transgenic animal?
There are various definitions for the term transgenic animal. The Federation of European Laboratory Animal Associations defines the term as an animal in which there has been a deliberate modification of its genome, the genetic makeup of an organism responsible for inherited characteristics.
The nucleus of all cells in every living organism contains genes made up of DNA. These genes store information that regulates how our bodies form and function. Genes can be altered artificially, so that some characteristics of an animal are changed. For example, an embryo can have an extra, functioning gene from another source artificially introduced into it, or a gene introduced which can knock out the functioning of another particular gene in the embryo. Animals that have their DNA manipulated in this way are knows as transgenic animals.
The majority of transgenic animals produced so far are mice, the animal that pioneered the technology. The first successful transgenic animal was a mouse. A few years later, it was followed by rabbits, pigs, sheep, and cattle.
Why are these animals being produced? The two most common reasons are:
* Some transgenic animals are produced for specific economic traits. For example, transgenic cattle were created to produce milk containing particular human proteins, which may help in the treatment of human emphysema.
* Other transgenic animals are produced as disease models (animals genetically manipulated to exhibit disease symptoms so that effective treatment can be studied). For example, Harvard scientists made a major scientific breakthrough when they received a U.S. patent (the company DuPont holds exclusive rights to its use) for a genetically engineered mouse, called OncoMouse® or the Harvard mouse, carrying a gene that promotes the development of various human cancers.
How are transgenic animals produced?
Since the discovery of the molecular structure of DNA by Watson and Crick in 1953, molecular biology research has gained momentum. Molecular biology technology combines techniques and expertise from biochemistry, genetics, cell biology, developmental biology, and microbiology.
Scientists can now produce transgenic animals because, since Watson and Crick’s discovery, there have been breakthroughs in:
* recombinant DNA (artificially-produced DNA)
* genetic cloning
* analysis of gene expression (the process by which a gene gives rise to a protein)
* genomic mapping
The underlying principle in the production of transgenic animals is the introduction of a foreign gene or genes into an animal (the inserted genes are called transgenes). The foreign genes “must be transmitted through the germ line, so that every cell, including germ cells, of the animal contain the same modified genetic material.” (Germ cells are cells whose function is to transmit genes to an organism’s offspring.)
To date, there are three basic methods of producing transgenic animals:
* DNA microinjection
* Retrovirus-mediated gene transfer
* Embryonic stem cell-mediated gene transfer
Gene transfer by microinjection is the predominant method used to produce transgenic farm animals. Since the insertion of DNA results in a random process, transgenic animals are mated to ensure that their offspring acquire the desired transgene. However, the success rate of producing transgenic animals individually by these methods is very low and it may be more efficient to use cloning techniques to increase their numbers. For example, gene transfer studies revealed that only 0.6% of transgenic pigs were born with a desired gene after 7,000 eggs were injected with a specific transgene.
1. DNA Microinjection
The mouse was the first animal to undergo successful gene transfer using DNA microinjection. This method involves:
* transfer of a desired gene construct (of a single gene or a combination of genes that are recombined and then cloned) from another member of the same species or from a different species into the pronucleus of a reproductive cell
* the manipulated cell, which first must be cultured in vitro (in a lab, not in a live animal) to develop to a specific embryonic phase, is then transferred to the recipient female
2. Retrovirus-Mediated Gene Transfer
A retrovirus is a virus that carries its genetic material in the form of RNA rather than DNA. This method involves:
* retroviruses used as vectors to transfer genetic material into the host cell, resulting in a chimera, an organism consisting of tissues or parts of diverse genetic constitution
* chimeras are inbred for as many as 20 generations until homozygous (carrying the desired transgene in every cell) transgenic offspring are born
The method was successfully used in 1974 when a simian virus was inserted into mice embryos, resulting in mice carrying this DNA.
3. Embryonic Stem Cell-Mediated Gene Transfer
This method involves:
* isolation of totipotent stem cells (stem cells that can develop into any type of specialized cell) from embryos
* the desired gene is inserted into these cells
* cells containing the desired DNA are incorporated into the host’s embryo, resulting in a chimeric animal
Unlike the other two methods, which require live transgenic offspring to test for the presence of the desired transgene, this method allows testing for transgenes at the cell stage.
How do transgenic animals contribute to human welfare?
The benefits of these animals to human welfare can be grouped into areas:
* Agriculture
* Medicine
* Industry
The examples below are not intended to be complete but only to provide a sampling of the benefits.
1. Agricultural Applications
a) breeding
Farmers have always used selective breeding to produce animals that exhibit desired traits (e.g., increased milk production, high growth rate). Traditional breeding is a time-consuming, difficult task. When technology using molecular biology was developed, it became possible to develop traits in animals in a shorter time and with more precision. In addition, it offers the farmer an easy way to increase yields.
b) quality
Transgenic cows exist that produce more milk or milk with less lactose or cholesterol, pigs and cattle that have more meat on them, and sheep that grow more wool18. In the past, farmers used growth hormones to spur the development of animals but this technique was problematic, especially since residue of the hormones remained in the animal product.
c) disease resistance
Scientists are attempting to produce disease-resistant animals, such as influenza-resistant pigs, but a very limited number of genes are currently known to be responsible for resistance to diseases in farm animals.
2. Medical Applications
a) xenotransplantation
Patients die every year for lack of a replacement heart, liver, or kidney. For example, about 5,000 organs are needed each year in the United Kingdom alone.25 Transgenic pigs may provide the transplant organs needed to alleviate the shortfall. Currently, xenotransplantation is hampered by a pig protein that can cause donor rejection but research is underway to remove the pig protein and replace it with a human protein.
b) nutritional supplements and pharmaceuticals
Products such as insulin, growth hormone, and blood anti-clotting factors may soon be or have already been obtained from the milk of transgenic cows, sheep, or goats.3,12,23 Research is also underway to manufacture milk through transgenesis for treatment of debilitating diseases such as phenylketonuria (PKU), hereditary emphysema, and cystic fibrosis.
In 1997, the first transgenic cow, Rosie, produced human protein-enriched milk at 2.4 grams per litre. This transgenic milk is a more nutritionally balanced product than natural bovine milk and could be given to babies or the elderly with special nutritional or digestive needs. Rosie’s milk contains the human gene alpha-lactalbumin.
c) human gene therapy
Human gene therapy involves adding a normal copy of a gene (transgene) to the genome of a person carrying defective copies of the gene. The potential for treatments for the 5,000 named genetic diseases is huge and transgenic animals could play a role. For example, the A. I. Virtanen Institute in Finland produced a calf with a gene that makes the substance that promotes the growth of red cells in humans.
3. Industrial Applications
In 2001, two scientists at Nexia Biotechnologies in Canada spliced spider genes into the cells of lactating goats. The goats began to manufacture silk along with their milk and secrete tiny silk strands from their body by the bucketful. By extracting polymer strands from the milk and weaving them into thread, the scientists can create a light, tough, flexible material that could be used in such applications as military uniforms, medical microsutures, and tennis racket strings.
Toxicity-sensitive transgenic animals have been produced for chemical safety testing. Microorganisms have been engineered to produce a wide variety of proteins, which in turn can produce enzymes that can speed up industrial chemical reactions.
What are the ethical concerns surrounding transgenesis?
This article focuses on the benefits of the technology; however, thoughtful ethical decision-making cannot be ignored by the biotechnology industry, scientists, policy-makers, and the public. These ethical issues, better served in their own article, include questions such as:
* Should there be universal protocols for transgenesis?
* Should such protocols demand that only the most promising research be permitted?
* Is human welfare the only consideration? What about the welfare of other life forms?
* Should scientists focus on in vitro (cultured in a lab) transgenic methods rather than, or before, using live animals to alleviate animal suffering?
* Will transgenic animals radically change the direction of evolution, which may result in drastic consequences for nature and humans alike?
* Should patents be allowed on transgenic animals, which may hamper the free exchange of scientific research?
Conclusion
Interestingly, the creation of transgenic animals has resulted in a shift in the use of laboratory animals — from the use of higher-order species such as dogs to lower-order species such as mice — and has decreased the number of animals used in such experimentation, especially in the development of disease models. This is certainly a good turn of events since transgenic technology holds great potential in many fields, including agriculture, medicine, and industry.
Thursday, October 22, 2009
Patent - Bane or Boon
The philosophy behind the grant of Patent is “Suffer less evil for more good” and the purpose is to stimulate the investment in industrial innovation. When somebody invents a new product or process, which is capable of industrial application and discloses it to the Public through patent office, the Government may grant a Patent i.e. the right to exclude his competitors from the commercial exploitation of the invention within the country so that the expenses involved in the R & D could be recovered. By virtue of the grant, Patentee gets the exclusive right to prevent the third parties (not having his consent) from the act of making, using, offering for sale, selling or importing the patented product or process within the territory of grant. Therefore Patent confers the right to preclude the competitors and not essentially to the commercial exploitation by himself. This makes patent a kind of monopoly granted by the Government (Sovereign)
ORIGIN OF THE PATENT SYSTEM
Although there is evidence suggesting that something like patents was used among some ancient Greek cities, the origin of patents for invention is obscure. It is found that the first recorded ‘patent’ for an industrial invention was granted in 1421 in Florence (A city in central Italy) to an architect and Engineer Filippo Brunellesche (A three-year monopoly on the manufacture of a barge with hoisting gear to move marble). However Britain owns the longest continuous patent tradition, which finds its root in the 15th century when the English Crown started making specific grants of privilege termed “Letters Patent” to manufacturers and traders providing them with a “monopoly” to produce particular goods or provide particular services.
Patent (‘patere’ in Latin) means ‘to be open’ i.e. open to public inspection. So “Letters patent” were the open letters addressed by the sovereign “to all people to whom these presents shall come” marked with the King’s Great Seal granting a right, monopoly, title, or status to someone or some entity such as a corporation. (This grant is the opposite of letters close which are personal in nature and sealed so that only the recipient can read the contents of the letter). The earliest known English patent for invention was granted by Henry VI to Flemish-born John of Utynam in 1449. The patent gave John a 20-year monopoly for a method of making stained glass, required for the windows of Eton College that had not been previously known in England.
This was the start of a long tradition by the English crown of the granting of “letters patent” which granted “monopolies” to favoured persons who helped the king in war or otherwise. This power intended to raise money for the crown (and the Grantee also) , was widely abused as the crown granted patent in respect of all sorts of goods (salt, for example), and court began to limit the circumstances in which they could be granted. After public outcry, King ‘James I’ was forced to revoke all the existing monopolies and declare that they were only to be used for ‘projects of new invention’. Parliament eventually restricted the crown’s power explicitly through the ‘Statute of Monopolies 1623’ under King ‘James I ‘ so that the King could only issue letters patents to the inventors or introducers of original inventions for a fixed number of years. Section 6 of the Statute refers to “manner[s] of new manufacture . . . [by] inventors”, and this section remains the foundation for patent law in England and Australia . In the reign of Queen Anne the rules were changed again so that a written description of the article was given for the grant. The Statute of Monopolies was later developed to produce modern patent law.
IS IT REALLY A MONOPOLY ?
The patents are some times referred to as monopolies but that is not always true. In economics a monopoly (Greek monos (one) + polein (to sell)) is defined as a market situation where there is only one provider of a product or service. In other words monopoly is “the exclusive control of a commodity or service in a given market’ held by force or by virtue of grant from the sovereign. It concentrates income to the holder of the monopoly at the expense of those who do not hold that monopoly and hence interferes with freedom of trade.
Patent cannot be viewed as a monopoly as it is not granted to something, which is already in public domain. So nothing is taken out of the Public. People can compete a patented product with advanced technology even while a patent is in force but they need to bring out the products based on different ideas. Thus a patent behaves like a grant of real property right, in that the owner of a house may exclude others from using it, but he certainly does not have a monopoly over the real estate market. Also when we cannot establish the time at which monopoly will end and competition will begin, we limit the time for which a patent is granted. That is, we are setting the time at which the inventor will no longer be able to demand a price in excess of the zero marginal cost of his intellectual property. Therefore Patent gives the ability to preclude competition and not the monopoly in the abstract.
NECESSITY OF A PATENT SYSTEM
In order to invent something new and to develop it to a stage that is commercially viable huge investments in terms of money and labour are necessary in addition to the intellectual activity. But when the invention is revealed it comes to public domain, the inventor has to meet with competition from his rival manufactures and therefore the return of investment is not guarantied. That is why many people try to work the invention secretly but the risk of his invention being subjected to ‘reverse engineering’ persists. There comes the importance of patent system that can avert an impasse to technical advancement, which might occur otherwise. Therefore Patent system provides a social benefit, since we obtain some inventions that otherwise would not have been made. It bestows monetary reward for revealing technological innovation along with accolades for the inventor (Patent is an award for the inventor and a reward for the investor).
Grant of patent for inventions attracts investment because the commercial exploitation of the invention is possible to its fullest extent during the term of patent. Another major advantage of the patent system is that it promotes ‘invent around’ concept. Patent is granted only when the invention and its operation or use and the method by which it is to be performed are fully disclosed to the patent office. When the patentee launches the product (in which the invention is incorporated) in the market, his rival manufactures may lose the market if the product is technically advanced and cheap as compared to the existing one. The patentee can prevent others from manufacturing the same product by legal means. But the competitors have the option to ‘invent around’ that essential product i.e. they can conduct further research and development around that product and can bring out a better invention which may result in cheaper and better product. This is possible because the invention is already revealed through the patent office in a form understandable to a ‘person skilled in the art (technology)’ and the patentee cannot prevent the further research on the product. It paves the way for a healthy competition among the manufacturers resulting in day-to-day improvement of technology. Ultimately it enhances the economic growth of the country and life standard of the people.
DANGER IN THE PATENT SYSTEM
Patent system jeopardizes the developing countries and under developed countries whose technology is far behind that of developed countries. As we know, patent is the right to exclude the competitors from making or importing the patented product and not exactly the exclusive right for the commercial exploitation within the country. Moreover the number of patent applications made by the foreigners in these countries amount to more than three fourth of the total. Nationals of the developed countries may take out a patent in a developing country purely to protect the market from rival manufacturers and work the patent simply by importing the products to the developing country. It affects the domestic industry of such countries very badly because the advanced technology products imported by the patentee may be cheaper and better in quality to that of the domestic one. These domestic products cannot survive in such a market situation where consumers prefer to buy the advanced technology products, which are cheaper. As most of the third world countries are far behind the first world countries by more than a quarter century in technology competency, this situation may result in the total collapse of the domestic industry and hence unemployment when the patent holders enjoy the monopoly in these countries making it a mere market for dumping their products manufactured on large scale. That is why it becomes necessary that ‘the invention should be worked within the territory of the country on a commercial scale and to the fullest extent that is reasonably practicable’. In order to prevent the abuse of patent as a monopoly for the importation of the patented article ‘patent law’ of the said countries should incorporate the provisions for ‘compulsory license’ and revocation of the patent. It is also very essential that such countries should take measures for the advancement of Research & Development and patent awareness within the country.
Source:secularcitizen
ORIGIN OF THE PATENT SYSTEM
Although there is evidence suggesting that something like patents was used among some ancient Greek cities, the origin of patents for invention is obscure. It is found that the first recorded ‘patent’ for an industrial invention was granted in 1421 in Florence (A city in central Italy) to an architect and Engineer Filippo Brunellesche (A three-year monopoly on the manufacture of a barge with hoisting gear to move marble). However Britain owns the longest continuous patent tradition, which finds its root in the 15th century when the English Crown started making specific grants of privilege termed “Letters Patent” to manufacturers and traders providing them with a “monopoly” to produce particular goods or provide particular services.
Patent (‘patere’ in Latin) means ‘to be open’ i.e. open to public inspection. So “Letters patent” were the open letters addressed by the sovereign “to all people to whom these presents shall come” marked with the King’s Great Seal granting a right, monopoly, title, or status to someone or some entity such as a corporation. (This grant is the opposite of letters close which are personal in nature and sealed so that only the recipient can read the contents of the letter). The earliest known English patent for invention was granted by Henry VI to Flemish-born John of Utynam in 1449. The patent gave John a 20-year monopoly for a method of making stained glass, required for the windows of Eton College that had not been previously known in England.
This was the start of a long tradition by the English crown of the granting of “letters patent” which granted “monopolies” to favoured persons who helped the king in war or otherwise. This power intended to raise money for the crown (and the Grantee also) , was widely abused as the crown granted patent in respect of all sorts of goods (salt, for example), and court began to limit the circumstances in which they could be granted. After public outcry, King ‘James I’ was forced to revoke all the existing monopolies and declare that they were only to be used for ‘projects of new invention’. Parliament eventually restricted the crown’s power explicitly through the ‘Statute of Monopolies 1623’ under King ‘James I ‘ so that the King could only issue letters patents to the inventors or introducers of original inventions for a fixed number of years. Section 6 of the Statute refers to “manner[s] of new manufacture . . . [by] inventors”, and this section remains the foundation for patent law in England and Australia . In the reign of Queen Anne the rules were changed again so that a written description of the article was given for the grant. The Statute of Monopolies was later developed to produce modern patent law.
IS IT REALLY A MONOPOLY ?
The patents are some times referred to as monopolies but that is not always true. In economics a monopoly (Greek monos (one) + polein (to sell)) is defined as a market situation where there is only one provider of a product or service. In other words monopoly is “the exclusive control of a commodity or service in a given market’ held by force or by virtue of grant from the sovereign. It concentrates income to the holder of the monopoly at the expense of those who do not hold that monopoly and hence interferes with freedom of trade.
Patent cannot be viewed as a monopoly as it is not granted to something, which is already in public domain. So nothing is taken out of the Public. People can compete a patented product with advanced technology even while a patent is in force but they need to bring out the products based on different ideas. Thus a patent behaves like a grant of real property right, in that the owner of a house may exclude others from using it, but he certainly does not have a monopoly over the real estate market. Also when we cannot establish the time at which monopoly will end and competition will begin, we limit the time for which a patent is granted. That is, we are setting the time at which the inventor will no longer be able to demand a price in excess of the zero marginal cost of his intellectual property. Therefore Patent gives the ability to preclude competition and not the monopoly in the abstract.
NECESSITY OF A PATENT SYSTEM
In order to invent something new and to develop it to a stage that is commercially viable huge investments in terms of money and labour are necessary in addition to the intellectual activity. But when the invention is revealed it comes to public domain, the inventor has to meet with competition from his rival manufactures and therefore the return of investment is not guarantied. That is why many people try to work the invention secretly but the risk of his invention being subjected to ‘reverse engineering’ persists. There comes the importance of patent system that can avert an impasse to technical advancement, which might occur otherwise. Therefore Patent system provides a social benefit, since we obtain some inventions that otherwise would not have been made. It bestows monetary reward for revealing technological innovation along with accolades for the inventor (Patent is an award for the inventor and a reward for the investor).
Grant of patent for inventions attracts investment because the commercial exploitation of the invention is possible to its fullest extent during the term of patent. Another major advantage of the patent system is that it promotes ‘invent around’ concept. Patent is granted only when the invention and its operation or use and the method by which it is to be performed are fully disclosed to the patent office. When the patentee launches the product (in which the invention is incorporated) in the market, his rival manufactures may lose the market if the product is technically advanced and cheap as compared to the existing one. The patentee can prevent others from manufacturing the same product by legal means. But the competitors have the option to ‘invent around’ that essential product i.e. they can conduct further research and development around that product and can bring out a better invention which may result in cheaper and better product. This is possible because the invention is already revealed through the patent office in a form understandable to a ‘person skilled in the art (technology)’ and the patentee cannot prevent the further research on the product. It paves the way for a healthy competition among the manufacturers resulting in day-to-day improvement of technology. Ultimately it enhances the economic growth of the country and life standard of the people.
DANGER IN THE PATENT SYSTEM
Patent system jeopardizes the developing countries and under developed countries whose technology is far behind that of developed countries. As we know, patent is the right to exclude the competitors from making or importing the patented product and not exactly the exclusive right for the commercial exploitation within the country. Moreover the number of patent applications made by the foreigners in these countries amount to more than three fourth of the total. Nationals of the developed countries may take out a patent in a developing country purely to protect the market from rival manufacturers and work the patent simply by importing the products to the developing country. It affects the domestic industry of such countries very badly because the advanced technology products imported by the patentee may be cheaper and better in quality to that of the domestic one. These domestic products cannot survive in such a market situation where consumers prefer to buy the advanced technology products, which are cheaper. As most of the third world countries are far behind the first world countries by more than a quarter century in technology competency, this situation may result in the total collapse of the domestic industry and hence unemployment when the patent holders enjoy the monopoly in these countries making it a mere market for dumping their products manufactured on large scale. That is why it becomes necessary that ‘the invention should be worked within the territory of the country on a commercial scale and to the fullest extent that is reasonably practicable’. In order to prevent the abuse of patent as a monopoly for the importation of the patented article ‘patent law’ of the said countries should incorporate the provisions for ‘compulsory license’ and revocation of the patent. It is also very essential that such countries should take measures for the advancement of Research & Development and patent awareness within the country.
Source:secularcitizen
Robert Mugabe vs. Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe’s president, Robert Mugabe, and his party have been trying to blow up the power-sharing arrangement ever since neighboring states put it together last year. They are now perilously close to succeeding.
Prime Minister Morgan Tsvangirai announced last week that he and his party, the Movement for Democratic Change, would boycott cabinet meetings to protest the arrest and detention of an important party leader, one of a long series of arrests ordered by Mr. Mugabe to make power-sharing unworkable.
The departure of Mr. Tsvangirai and his allies from government would be a disaster for Zimbabwe’s long-suffering people. The Southern African Development Community, the 15-member regional organization that brokered the deal, must demand that Mr. Mugabe finally abide by its terms and spirit. If he refuses, the community should withdraw recognition from his government and insist on new, internationally supervised elections.
Mr. Tsvangirai clearly won the first round of Zimbabwe’s 2008 presidential vote. Then Mr. Mugabe let loose the army and thugs from his party, ZANU-PF, who made it impossible for Mr. Tsvangirai to continue campaigning for the decisive second round. Mr. Mugabe claimed re-election by default, but few recognized his rule as legitimate. The United States and the European Union applied constructive pressure by tightening financial sanctions against Mr. Mugabe’s close associates.
At that point other African leaders should have pressed Mr. Mugabe to organize new elections or step aside. Instead, they devised a deeply flawed “power-sharing” deal. It provided for Mr. Mugabe to continue as president and Mr. Tsvangirai to be named prime minister. Cabinet jobs were apportioned. But Mr. Mugabe’s loyalists kept control of the army, police and the courts and used that power to arrest and intimidate opposition leaders, including members of the new government.
The new cabinet put honest and competent opposition leaders in charge of education, health, housing and child welfare. Their efforts, along with the help they enlisted from international relief agencies, turned back a deadly cholera epidemic and famine, slowed the crippling exodus of teachers and made it possible for Zimbabwe’s next generation to imagine a better future.
If power-sharing can be saved, those ministries need to stay in qualified hands. ZANU-PF’s grip on the army and courts must be loosened and a nonpolitical expert should be named to run the central bank. If Mr. Mugabe won’t agree to those terms, new elections must be scheduled, with active international supervision, so that democracy, not intimidation, determines their outcome.
Prime Minister Morgan Tsvangirai announced last week that he and his party, the Movement for Democratic Change, would boycott cabinet meetings to protest the arrest and detention of an important party leader, one of a long series of arrests ordered by Mr. Mugabe to make power-sharing unworkable.
The departure of Mr. Tsvangirai and his allies from government would be a disaster for Zimbabwe’s long-suffering people. The Southern African Development Community, the 15-member regional organization that brokered the deal, must demand that Mr. Mugabe finally abide by its terms and spirit. If he refuses, the community should withdraw recognition from his government and insist on new, internationally supervised elections.
Mr. Tsvangirai clearly won the first round of Zimbabwe’s 2008 presidential vote. Then Mr. Mugabe let loose the army and thugs from his party, ZANU-PF, who made it impossible for Mr. Tsvangirai to continue campaigning for the decisive second round. Mr. Mugabe claimed re-election by default, but few recognized his rule as legitimate. The United States and the European Union applied constructive pressure by tightening financial sanctions against Mr. Mugabe’s close associates.
At that point other African leaders should have pressed Mr. Mugabe to organize new elections or step aside. Instead, they devised a deeply flawed “power-sharing” deal. It provided for Mr. Mugabe to continue as president and Mr. Tsvangirai to be named prime minister. Cabinet jobs were apportioned. But Mr. Mugabe’s loyalists kept control of the army, police and the courts and used that power to arrest and intimidate opposition leaders, including members of the new government.
The new cabinet put honest and competent opposition leaders in charge of education, health, housing and child welfare. Their efforts, along with the help they enlisted from international relief agencies, turned back a deadly cholera epidemic and famine, slowed the crippling exodus of teachers and made it possible for Zimbabwe’s next generation to imagine a better future.
If power-sharing can be saved, those ministries need to stay in qualified hands. ZANU-PF’s grip on the army and courts must be loosened and a nonpolitical expert should be named to run the central bank. If Mr. Mugabe won’t agree to those terms, new elections must be scheduled, with active international supervision, so that democracy, not intimidation, determines their outcome.
Amendments to Article 243 T of the Constitution for enhancing reservation for women in Urban Local Bodies to 50 percent
The Union Cabinet today approved the proposal for moving a Constitutional Amendment Bill for enhancing reservation for women in Urban Local Bodies from one third to fifty percent. This provision will apply to (i) the total number of seats to be filled by direct election, (ii) offices of Chairpersons and (iii) seats and offices of the Chairpersons reserved for SCs and STs.
Increased representation of women is likely to yield significant benefits in terms of higher priority to women’s issues in critical areas of urban Governance and service delivery such as water supply, sanitation, solid waste management, education and health etc.
BACKGROUND :
The President of India in her address to the Parliament on 4.6.09 stated that the Government will initiate steps for Constitutional Amendment to provide fifty percent reservation for women in Urban Local Bodies as women suffer multiple deprivations of class, caste and gender and enhancing reservation in Urban Local Bodies will lead to more women entering the public sphere.
Implementation Strategy & Targets
Ministry of Urban Development will move a Bill for amendment to Article 243 T of the Constitution in the next session of Parliament after approval of the Cabinet.
Major Impact
Enhancement of reservation for women in Urban Local Bodies will not only ensure their increased representation and participation at grassroots levels in various Urban Local Bodies but also mainstream gender concerns in governance and decision making process.
Expenditure involved
There is no financial implication in operationalization of the proposal.
States/Districts covered
The proposed Constitution Amendment Bill would cover All States/UTs and parts thereof, which are covered by Part IX A of Constitution.
Increased representation of women is likely to yield significant benefits in terms of higher priority to women’s issues in critical areas of urban Governance and service delivery such as water supply, sanitation, solid waste management, education and health etc.
BACKGROUND :
The President of India in her address to the Parliament on 4.6.09 stated that the Government will initiate steps for Constitutional Amendment to provide fifty percent reservation for women in Urban Local Bodies as women suffer multiple deprivations of class, caste and gender and enhancing reservation in Urban Local Bodies will lead to more women entering the public sphere.
Implementation Strategy & Targets
Ministry of Urban Development will move a Bill for amendment to Article 243 T of the Constitution in the next session of Parliament after approval of the Cabinet.
Major Impact
Enhancement of reservation for women in Urban Local Bodies will not only ensure their increased representation and participation at grassroots levels in various Urban Local Bodies but also mainstream gender concerns in governance and decision making process.
Expenditure involved
There is no financial implication in operationalization of the proposal.
States/Districts covered
The proposed Constitution Amendment Bill would cover All States/UTs and parts thereof, which are covered by Part IX A of Constitution.
Iodine – Essential for Health
Global Iodine Deficiency Disorders Prevention Day October 21
Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDD) continue to pose a serious threat to the health, well being, economic productivity and advancement of several hundred million people worldwide. People living in iodine deficient environment suffer from reduced mental and physical abilities, cretinism, deaf-mutism, squint, still-birth, abortion, goitre of all ages, neuro-motor defects, etc. Even when born normal, young children whose diets are low in iodine have their lives trapped in mental dullness and apathy. IDD preys upon poor, pregnant women and preschool children, posing serious public health problems in more than hundred developing countries. Iodine deficiency was once considered a minor problem, causing goiter, it is now known that it affects developing brain much deadlier and thereby, constituting a threat to the social and economic development of many countries.
The magnitude of the IDD problem is quite high. This has led to an International focus on elimination of Iodine Deficiency Disorders and October 21 is observed as the Global Iodine Deficiency Disorders Prevention Day to create awareness towards this problem.
Iodine is an essential component of thyroid hormones which are needed for optimal mental and physical development and regulation of body metabolism. Therefore, in iodine deficiency populations, it is critical to have effective universal salt iodisation.
Iodine, a chemical element like carbon, oxygen or iron, is available in fairly constant amounts in seawater while it is found in an uneven distribution over land and fresh water. It is an essential part of the chemical structure of thyroid hormones. It makes two hormones - thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). The thyroid hormones act in target organs by influencing many different chemical reactions, usually involving manufacture of key proteins. The body must have proper levels of thyroid hormone to work well.
Recommended daily intake of iodine varies with age. To meet iodine requirements, the recommended daily intakes are - 50 micrograms for infants (first 12 months of age), 90 mg for children (2-6 years of age) 120 mg for school children (7-12 years of age), 150 mg for adults (beyond 12 years of age) and 200 mg for pregnant and lactating women. Most of it comes from what we eat and drink. Seafood is usually a good source because the ocean contains considerable iodine. Freshwater fish reflect the iodine content of the water where they swim. Iodine contents in other foods vary depending on their source. Plants grown in iodine-deficient soil do not have much iodine, nor do meat or other products from animals fed on iodine-deficient plants. Iodized salt is a special case. With only a few isolated exceptions, edible salt (sodium chloride) does not naturally contain iodine. Iodine is added deliberately as one of the most efficient ways of improving iodine nutrition. Iodine exposure can come from many other sources too, for example certain food colorings (erythrosine), skin disinfectants, such as povidone iodine, is absorbed and reaches the bloodstream, health foods – certain types of kelp, dyes and medicines. People also get iodine from its use in farm animals, for cleansing udders or as part of iodine-containing medicines. Iodate has been used as a bread stabilizer in commercial baking, although this practice is less common now.
Though iodine deficiency has terrific negative effects, its excess can play havoc too. The excess of it causes thyroid under activity. Iodised and uniodised salt are sold simultaneously in the country. But the awareness of the health priority aspect of iodised salt among the public has resulted in the creation of a significant consumer demand for iodised salt.
The World over, including China and the neighbouring countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Maldives, Myanmar, Thailand, etc., are implementing compulsory salt iodisation for human consumption. Globally iodated salt is recognized as the cheapest and most sustainable way to prevent and control Iodine Deficiency Disorders. Except few types of goiter, most of the iodine deficiency disorders are irreversible and permanent in nature, but they can be easily prevented by regular consumption of iodated salt daily.
Realizing the magnitude of the problem, the Government launched a 100 per cent centrally assisted National Goitre Control Programme (NGCP) in 1962. In August 1992, the National Goitre Control Programme (NGCP) was renamed as National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control Programme (NIDDCP) with a view to cover a wide spectrum of Iodine Deficiency Disorders.
The Government’s goal of NIDDCP is to reduce the prevalence of Iodine deficiency disorders below 10 per cent in the entire country by 2012 A.D.
Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDD) continue to pose a serious threat to the health, well being, economic productivity and advancement of several hundred million people worldwide. People living in iodine deficient environment suffer from reduced mental and physical abilities, cretinism, deaf-mutism, squint, still-birth, abortion, goitre of all ages, neuro-motor defects, etc. Even when born normal, young children whose diets are low in iodine have their lives trapped in mental dullness and apathy. IDD preys upon poor, pregnant women and preschool children, posing serious public health problems in more than hundred developing countries. Iodine deficiency was once considered a minor problem, causing goiter, it is now known that it affects developing brain much deadlier and thereby, constituting a threat to the social and economic development of many countries.
The magnitude of the IDD problem is quite high. This has led to an International focus on elimination of Iodine Deficiency Disorders and October 21 is observed as the Global Iodine Deficiency Disorders Prevention Day to create awareness towards this problem.
Iodine is an essential component of thyroid hormones which are needed for optimal mental and physical development and regulation of body metabolism. Therefore, in iodine deficiency populations, it is critical to have effective universal salt iodisation.
Iodine, a chemical element like carbon, oxygen or iron, is available in fairly constant amounts in seawater while it is found in an uneven distribution over land and fresh water. It is an essential part of the chemical structure of thyroid hormones. It makes two hormones - thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). The thyroid hormones act in target organs by influencing many different chemical reactions, usually involving manufacture of key proteins. The body must have proper levels of thyroid hormone to work well.
Recommended daily intake of iodine varies with age. To meet iodine requirements, the recommended daily intakes are - 50 micrograms for infants (first 12 months of age), 90 mg for children (2-6 years of age) 120 mg for school children (7-12 years of age), 150 mg for adults (beyond 12 years of age) and 200 mg for pregnant and lactating women. Most of it comes from what we eat and drink. Seafood is usually a good source because the ocean contains considerable iodine. Freshwater fish reflect the iodine content of the water where they swim. Iodine contents in other foods vary depending on their source. Plants grown in iodine-deficient soil do not have much iodine, nor do meat or other products from animals fed on iodine-deficient plants. Iodized salt is a special case. With only a few isolated exceptions, edible salt (sodium chloride) does not naturally contain iodine. Iodine is added deliberately as one of the most efficient ways of improving iodine nutrition. Iodine exposure can come from many other sources too, for example certain food colorings (erythrosine), skin disinfectants, such as povidone iodine, is absorbed and reaches the bloodstream, health foods – certain types of kelp, dyes and medicines. People also get iodine from its use in farm animals, for cleansing udders or as part of iodine-containing medicines. Iodate has been used as a bread stabilizer in commercial baking, although this practice is less common now.
Though iodine deficiency has terrific negative effects, its excess can play havoc too. The excess of it causes thyroid under activity. Iodised and uniodised salt are sold simultaneously in the country. But the awareness of the health priority aspect of iodised salt among the public has resulted in the creation of a significant consumer demand for iodised salt.
The World over, including China and the neighbouring countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Maldives, Myanmar, Thailand, etc., are implementing compulsory salt iodisation for human consumption. Globally iodated salt is recognized as the cheapest and most sustainable way to prevent and control Iodine Deficiency Disorders. Except few types of goiter, most of the iodine deficiency disorders are irreversible and permanent in nature, but they can be easily prevented by regular consumption of iodated salt daily.
Realizing the magnitude of the problem, the Government launched a 100 per cent centrally assisted National Goitre Control Programme (NGCP) in 1962. In August 1992, the National Goitre Control Programme (NGCP) was renamed as National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control Programme (NIDDCP) with a view to cover a wide spectrum of Iodine Deficiency Disorders.
The Government’s goal of NIDDCP is to reduce the prevalence of Iodine deficiency disorders below 10 per cent in the entire country by 2012 A.D.
Renaming NREGA : a Tribute to a Gandhian Idea--- Nirendra Dev
Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of the Nation, always cherished about India’s rural beauty, resilient power as much he was concerned about the poverty and living conditions. His pet phrase was India lives in villages. Therefore, it was in fitness of things when the Prime Minister Dr Manmohan Singh’s government renamed its popular flagship programme National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) after him. The momentous occasion coincided with completion of 50 years of institution of Panchayati Raj in the country. It was on October 2, way back in 1959, country’s first Prime Minister Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru, had inaugurated Panchayati Raj at Naguar in Rajasthan.
India, as we know, is a country of villages and it goes without saying that since the dawn of Independence, concerted efforts have been made to ameliorate the living standard of rural masses. Rural development as an integrated concept of growth and poverty elimination has been of paramount concern in all the five year plans. Traditionally, Rural Development programmes comprise of following basic steps like infrastructure facilities in the rural areas, namely schools, health centres, roads, adequate drinking water and electrification. There have been also schemes like improving agricultural productivity, providing social services like health and education for socio-economic development, implementing scheme for the promotion of rural industry and importantly providing rural employment.
All these were going on smoothly undoubtedly. However, despite the strides the country has made in the last six decades, it must be admitted that there have been certain areas especially in rural India where standard of living has been far from satisfactory. Therefore, in 2005, the Government undertook a major venture, which today could be easily called the turning point of the changing face of the Indian villages. The Government enacted a law, under the name of, the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 whereby it says any adult who is willing to do unskilled manual work at the minimum wage is entitled to being employed on local public works within 15 days of applying.
Importantly, it laid guidelines providing room for “unemployment allowance” in which case - if employment is not provided within 15 days, the applicant is entitled to an unemployment allowance – of at least one fourth of the minimum wage for the first 30 days and at least one half of the minimum wage thereafter. So much has been the success rate of the NREGA in the last five years that there is little to dispute that the Act has helped a substantial Indian population during the last few months despite economic meltdown. There are statistics and surveys to suggest that NREGA has helped those undergoing reverse migration from urban and major metros to rural areas.
Among other things, NREGA has able to achieve substantial results in the field of reducing distress and seasonal migration. The Union Rural Development Minister Dr C P Joshi has said that the NREGA has also helped the rural and semi-urban people and NREGA workers in particular in “increasing” their purchasing power. It has to be taken in that context that the Finance Minister Shri Pranab Mukherjee remained focussed on Aam Admi and announced a slew of provisions for inclusive development in the budget for 2009-10 and gave a major push to the rural development projects.
Raising the flagship scheme NREGA by whopping 144 per cent to Rs 39,100 crore, he said a key challenge remains to broaden the agenda for inclusive development and to ensure that no individual, marginalized community or region is denied the fruits of development. Officials say under NREGA, as many as 4.49 crore households have been provided employment in 2008-09 and 216 crore person days of employment have been generated. In fiscal, 2009-10 up to July, Rs 2.53 crore households have been provided work and 87.09 crore person days have been generated.
Renaming NREGA
A decision to rename NREGA after Mahatma Gandhi was taken at a meeting of the Union Cabinet on October 1. The next day at a function at the gracious Vigyan Bhawan in the capital to rename NREGA as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGREGA), the Prime Minister also rightly launched a year-long Year of Gram Sabha. In his speech, the Prime Minister said that the government move to rename the NREGA is only a “humble tribute” to the Father of the Nation on his 140th birth anniversary. The Union Minister for Panchayati Raj and Rural Development, Dr Joshi said it is the need of the hour for the Panchayati Raj institutions to play a pro-active role in the developmental process.
Gandhian Thought
A key emphasis of Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy about governance has been the task of ensuring the inclusive growth. This is precisely an area the where old name NREGA, has provided employment particularly for marginalized groups. The participation percentages were 55 per cent (Scheduled caste /Scheduled Tribe) in 2008-09 and 53 per cent (SC/ST) up to July, 2009 are yardsticks to measure this. Officials also say that the women workforce participation has also surpassed the statutory minimum requirement of 33 per cent. In financial year, 2008-09, women participation was 48 per cent which has increased to 52 per cent up to July this year.
Fast Forward
The Act is doing extremely well so far. However, there have been instances of certain hurdles in implementation.. In the words of Dr Joshi himself, “so many ideas are being formulated and plans made for implementation of NREGA, but panchayats which are implementing it, have no proper place to do so”. This has been rightly addressed with the Government announcing setting up Rajiv Gandhi Seva Kendras in all 2.5 lakh panchayats of the country in the next three years. “These would act as mini-secretariats for NREGA projects implementation,” the minister said.
The Government has also rightly started a consultation process with the Minister Dr Joshi himself meeting a cross section of political leaders. After such a meeting he said the government is working hard to address what had been mentioned in the President’s speech to Parliament on ensuring transparency in NREGA. Several regional parties have also suggested that the Centre should expand the scope of newly named Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment Guarantee Act by including new types of work under it and ensure more transparency and accountability in its implementation.
The greatest strength of democracy is that under this system of governance, the people are the masters of the destiny and also of their own developmental works. This is one thing, Mahatma Gandhi had always underlined.
The rural Indian population, their welfare and the improvement in agriculture and rural India’s other facets were close to his heart. India always lives in villages and still it is a rural-based society. Yet, in a fast changing world and pressure of urbanization has often led hundreds off the fields taking them away from the villages. Perhaps going back to the field would be a difficult proposition for many Indians, but the Government’s target of improving rural living conditions is worth appreciating. Well, the MGREMA that way is a good instrument of change!
India, as we know, is a country of villages and it goes without saying that since the dawn of Independence, concerted efforts have been made to ameliorate the living standard of rural masses. Rural development as an integrated concept of growth and poverty elimination has been of paramount concern in all the five year plans. Traditionally, Rural Development programmes comprise of following basic steps like infrastructure facilities in the rural areas, namely schools, health centres, roads, adequate drinking water and electrification. There have been also schemes like improving agricultural productivity, providing social services like health and education for socio-economic development, implementing scheme for the promotion of rural industry and importantly providing rural employment.
All these were going on smoothly undoubtedly. However, despite the strides the country has made in the last six decades, it must be admitted that there have been certain areas especially in rural India where standard of living has been far from satisfactory. Therefore, in 2005, the Government undertook a major venture, which today could be easily called the turning point of the changing face of the Indian villages. The Government enacted a law, under the name of, the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 whereby it says any adult who is willing to do unskilled manual work at the minimum wage is entitled to being employed on local public works within 15 days of applying.
Importantly, it laid guidelines providing room for “unemployment allowance” in which case - if employment is not provided within 15 days, the applicant is entitled to an unemployment allowance – of at least one fourth of the minimum wage for the first 30 days and at least one half of the minimum wage thereafter. So much has been the success rate of the NREGA in the last five years that there is little to dispute that the Act has helped a substantial Indian population during the last few months despite economic meltdown. There are statistics and surveys to suggest that NREGA has helped those undergoing reverse migration from urban and major metros to rural areas.
Among other things, NREGA has able to achieve substantial results in the field of reducing distress and seasonal migration. The Union Rural Development Minister Dr C P Joshi has said that the NREGA has also helped the rural and semi-urban people and NREGA workers in particular in “increasing” their purchasing power. It has to be taken in that context that the Finance Minister Shri Pranab Mukherjee remained focussed on Aam Admi and announced a slew of provisions for inclusive development in the budget for 2009-10 and gave a major push to the rural development projects.
Raising the flagship scheme NREGA by whopping 144 per cent to Rs 39,100 crore, he said a key challenge remains to broaden the agenda for inclusive development and to ensure that no individual, marginalized community or region is denied the fruits of development. Officials say under NREGA, as many as 4.49 crore households have been provided employment in 2008-09 and 216 crore person days of employment have been generated. In fiscal, 2009-10 up to July, Rs 2.53 crore households have been provided work and 87.09 crore person days have been generated.
Renaming NREGA
A decision to rename NREGA after Mahatma Gandhi was taken at a meeting of the Union Cabinet on October 1. The next day at a function at the gracious Vigyan Bhawan in the capital to rename NREGA as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGREGA), the Prime Minister also rightly launched a year-long Year of Gram Sabha. In his speech, the Prime Minister said that the government move to rename the NREGA is only a “humble tribute” to the Father of the Nation on his 140th birth anniversary. The Union Minister for Panchayati Raj and Rural Development, Dr Joshi said it is the need of the hour for the Panchayati Raj institutions to play a pro-active role in the developmental process.
Gandhian Thought
A key emphasis of Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy about governance has been the task of ensuring the inclusive growth. This is precisely an area the where old name NREGA, has provided employment particularly for marginalized groups. The participation percentages were 55 per cent (Scheduled caste /Scheduled Tribe) in 2008-09 and 53 per cent (SC/ST) up to July, 2009 are yardsticks to measure this. Officials also say that the women workforce participation has also surpassed the statutory minimum requirement of 33 per cent. In financial year, 2008-09, women participation was 48 per cent which has increased to 52 per cent up to July this year.
Fast Forward
The Act is doing extremely well so far. However, there have been instances of certain hurdles in implementation.. In the words of Dr Joshi himself, “so many ideas are being formulated and plans made for implementation of NREGA, but panchayats which are implementing it, have no proper place to do so”. This has been rightly addressed with the Government announcing setting up Rajiv Gandhi Seva Kendras in all 2.5 lakh panchayats of the country in the next three years. “These would act as mini-secretariats for NREGA projects implementation,” the minister said.
The Government has also rightly started a consultation process with the Minister Dr Joshi himself meeting a cross section of political leaders. After such a meeting he said the government is working hard to address what had been mentioned in the President’s speech to Parliament on ensuring transparency in NREGA. Several regional parties have also suggested that the Centre should expand the scope of newly named Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment Guarantee Act by including new types of work under it and ensure more transparency and accountability in its implementation.
The greatest strength of democracy is that under this system of governance, the people are the masters of the destiny and also of their own developmental works. This is one thing, Mahatma Gandhi had always underlined.
The rural Indian population, their welfare and the improvement in agriculture and rural India’s other facets were close to his heart. India always lives in villages and still it is a rural-based society. Yet, in a fast changing world and pressure of urbanization has often led hundreds off the fields taking them away from the villages. Perhaps going back to the field would be a difficult proposition for many Indians, but the Government’s target of improving rural living conditions is worth appreciating. Well, the MGREMA that way is a good instrument of change!
GM research is needed urgently to avoid food crisis, says Royal Society
Research to develop genetically modified crops must be stepped up as part of a £2bn "grand challenge" to avoid future food shortages, an influential panel of scientists said yesterday. In its report, the Royal Society said that GM techniques would be needed to boost yields and help crops survive harsher climates, as the global population rises and global warming worsens.
But the report said GM was not the only answer, and that measures to improve crop management, such as improved irrigation, were needed too.
Professor David Baulcombe, a plant scientist at the University of Cambridge who chaired the study, said: "We need to take action now to stave off food shortages. If we wait even five to 10 years, it may be too late. Biological science has progressed in leaps and bounds in the last decade and UK scientists have been at the head of the pack when it comes to topics related to food crops. In the UK we have the potential to come up with viable scientific solutions for feeding a growing population and we have a responsibility to realise this potential. There's a very clear need for policy action and publicly funded science to make sure this happens."
The Royal Society said the government should reverse a decay in agricultural research in Britain and spend at least £200m each year for the next 10 years on science that improves crops and sustainable crop management.
The report said the changing diets of people around the world, the likely impact of climate change and growing scarcity of water and land made it harder to increase food production to meet an expected rise in global population of 3 billion by the mid-century. Production methods would need to sustain the environment, preserve natural resources and support the livelihoods of farmers and rural populations around the world, it added.
The report came as John Beddington, chief scientific adviser to the government, said a "range of solutions" would be needed to feed a growing world population.
Baulcombe added: "There is no panacea for ensuring global food security. Science-based approaches introduced alongside social science and economic innovations are essential if we're to have a decent chance of feeding the world's population in 40 years' time. Technologies that work on a farm in the UK may have little impact for harvests in Africa. Research is going to need to take into account a diverse range of crops, localities, cultures and numerous other circumstances."
Anti-GM campaigners criticised the report, which they said was at odds with a separate report on future food production produced last year by the International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD), which said there was little role for GM, as currently practised, in feeding the poor on a large scale.
Kirtana Chandrasekaran of Friends of the Earth said: "Science has a key role to play in reducing hunger and poverty, but the report's focus on GM crops ignores mounting evidence that this technology is failing. GM crops are an extension of big-business factory farming that is already wiping out wildlife, destroying communities and making climate change worse. Any attempt to combat the global food crisis must also address its root causes, such as industrial livestock production and a narrow focus on increasing yields."
Tom MacMillan, executive director of the Food Ethics Council, said: "They get ahead of themselves by demanding £2bn more for science. That's exactly the kind of decision that should be up for wider debate. The money might be better spent tackling the social and economic problems that affect whether growing more food makes a jot of difference to food security."
Julian Little, chairman of the Agricultural Biotechnology Council, which represents GM crop companies, said: "Farmers must be given access to all the proven tools available to help them produce more food in a more sustainable way. This should include advanced crop breeding using biotechnology and GM methods, which are already being used by more than 13 million farmers around the world and helping to deliver higher and more reliable crop yields while mitigating major threats to crop production, such as damaging effects of pests, diseases and droughts."
But the report said GM was not the only answer, and that measures to improve crop management, such as improved irrigation, were needed too.
Professor David Baulcombe, a plant scientist at the University of Cambridge who chaired the study, said: "We need to take action now to stave off food shortages. If we wait even five to 10 years, it may be too late. Biological science has progressed in leaps and bounds in the last decade and UK scientists have been at the head of the pack when it comes to topics related to food crops. In the UK we have the potential to come up with viable scientific solutions for feeding a growing population and we have a responsibility to realise this potential. There's a very clear need for policy action and publicly funded science to make sure this happens."
The Royal Society said the government should reverse a decay in agricultural research in Britain and spend at least £200m each year for the next 10 years on science that improves crops and sustainable crop management.
The report said the changing diets of people around the world, the likely impact of climate change and growing scarcity of water and land made it harder to increase food production to meet an expected rise in global population of 3 billion by the mid-century. Production methods would need to sustain the environment, preserve natural resources and support the livelihoods of farmers and rural populations around the world, it added.
The report came as John Beddington, chief scientific adviser to the government, said a "range of solutions" would be needed to feed a growing world population.
Baulcombe added: "There is no panacea for ensuring global food security. Science-based approaches introduced alongside social science and economic innovations are essential if we're to have a decent chance of feeding the world's population in 40 years' time. Technologies that work on a farm in the UK may have little impact for harvests in Africa. Research is going to need to take into account a diverse range of crops, localities, cultures and numerous other circumstances."
Anti-GM campaigners criticised the report, which they said was at odds with a separate report on future food production produced last year by the International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD), which said there was little role for GM, as currently practised, in feeding the poor on a large scale.
Kirtana Chandrasekaran of Friends of the Earth said: "Science has a key role to play in reducing hunger and poverty, but the report's focus on GM crops ignores mounting evidence that this technology is failing. GM crops are an extension of big-business factory farming that is already wiping out wildlife, destroying communities and making climate change worse. Any attempt to combat the global food crisis must also address its root causes, such as industrial livestock production and a narrow focus on increasing yields."
Tom MacMillan, executive director of the Food Ethics Council, said: "They get ahead of themselves by demanding £2bn more for science. That's exactly the kind of decision that should be up for wider debate. The money might be better spent tackling the social and economic problems that affect whether growing more food makes a jot of difference to food security."
Julian Little, chairman of the Agricultural Biotechnology Council, which represents GM crop companies, said: "Farmers must be given access to all the proven tools available to help them produce more food in a more sustainable way. This should include advanced crop breeding using biotechnology and GM methods, which are already being used by more than 13 million farmers around the world and helping to deliver higher and more reliable crop yields while mitigating major threats to crop production, such as damaging effects of pests, diseases and droughts."
Wednesday, October 21, 2009
Paper 4 - Section 2- Chapter 3... imp questions
1. What are stem cells? what are different types of stem cells
What are the uses and write about research if stem cells in national and international level
2. What are bio fuels? Types of bio fuels. Write about its development and usage in India. write about national bio fuel program
3. What is genetic engineering? Methods of genetic engineering. what are the characteristics of genetic engineering?
4. Role of bio fertilizers and bio pesticides in agriculture and their use in India today?
5. What is tissue culture? Process of tissue culture? characteristics of
6. What are the methods used for production of transgenic animals? characteristics of them?
7. Role of bio technology in agriculture?
What are the uses and write about research if stem cells in national and international level
2. What are bio fuels? Types of bio fuels. Write about its development and usage in India. write about national bio fuel program
3. What is genetic engineering? Methods of genetic engineering. what are the characteristics of genetic engineering?
4. Role of bio fertilizers and bio pesticides in agriculture and their use in India today?
5. What is tissue culture? Process of tissue culture? characteristics of
6. What are the methods used for production of transgenic animals? characteristics of them?
7. Role of bio technology in agriculture?
Monday, October 19, 2009
What is Judicial Activism?
The terms "judicial restraint" and "judicial activism" describe how a judge judges, that is,
how he applies the law to facts in the cases before him. The difference is that
restrained judges take the law as it is and activist judges make up the law as they go along.
Restrained judges respect the political process, whether they agree with its results or
not, until it clearly crosses a clear constitutional line. Activist judges feel free to re-write
statutes or the Constitution, to use extra-legal factors in their decisions, to ignore limits
on their power in the search for desirable results.
"Judicial Restraint" is the same as the "judgement" that Alexander Hamilton said should
guide judges, while "judicial activism" is the same as the "will" that Hamilton said should
not guide judges. Others have defined it similarly:
Senate Republican Conference Resolution (1997):
Be it resolved, that the Republican Conference opposes judicial activism, whereby
life-tenured unaccountable judges exceed their constitutional role of interpreting already
enacted, written law, and instead legislate from the bench by imposing their personal
preferences or view
Read More
how he applies the law to facts in the cases before him. The difference is that
restrained judges take the law as it is and activist judges make up the law as they go along.
Restrained judges respect the political process, whether they agree with its results or
not, until it clearly crosses a clear constitutional line. Activist judges feel free to re-write
statutes or the Constitution, to use extra-legal factors in their decisions, to ignore limits
on their power in the search for desirable results.
"Judicial Restraint" is the same as the "judgement" that Alexander Hamilton said should
guide judges, while "judicial activism" is the same as the "will" that Hamilton said should
not guide judges. Others have defined it similarly:
Senate Republican Conference Resolution (1997):
Be it resolved, that the Republican Conference opposes judicial activism, whereby
life-tenured unaccountable judges exceed their constitutional role of interpreting already
enacted, written law, and instead legislate from the bench by imposing their personal
preferences or view
Read More
Friday, September 18, 2009
APPSC Group 1- Paper 5 - Averages
The most confusing part in averages is average of speed.There are two cases which I know where this differs.
1. When the distance travelled is same for two different speeds then the the average is harmonic mean of the speeds.generally time factor is not important here (as far as what I think since distance travelled is uniform)
2.When the distances travelled are different for two different speeds then we have to find the total distance travelled and have to find the average using the time ,and it comes as a simple arithmetic average.Time factor is very important here(sincetime travelled is very important since we have to find the distance travelled)
I will clearly post examples for this post as this is the most confusing part for me in averages.
1. When the distance travelled is same for two different speeds then the the average is harmonic mean of the speeds.generally time factor is not important here (as far as what I think since distance travelled is uniform)
2.When the distances travelled are different for two different speeds then we have to find the total distance travelled and have to find the average using the time ,and it comes as a simple arithmetic average.Time factor is very important here(sincetime travelled is very important since we have to find the distance travelled)
I will clearly post examples for this post as this is the most confusing part for me in averages.
15 is what times more than 5 ??????
I have a question which is quite confusing....
15 is what times more than 5 ?
Does the answer should be 2 times or 3 times because we generally as a mathematician say it is three times more than 5. but three times of 5 is 15 and 2 times of 5 is 10.
we can otherwise say 15 is 10 more than 5 alas 15 is 2 times more than 5.
But ask any mathematician the answer is 15 is 3 times more than 5.
Solve the problems mathematically not linguistically.I am not sure what the answer will be,but if a problem like this comes I will blindly write the answer as 15 is 3 times more than 5 because this is what my teachers told me and I am following it.
If you ask me about my opinion off the record I say
15 is 2 times more than 5
or
15 is 3 times of 5
15 is what times more than 5 ?
Does the answer should be 2 times or 3 times because we generally as a mathematician say it is three times more than 5. but three times of 5 is 15 and 2 times of 5 is 10.
we can otherwise say 15 is 10 more than 5 alas 15 is 2 times more than 5.
But ask any mathematician the answer is 15 is 3 times more than 5.
Solve the problems mathematically not linguistically.I am not sure what the answer will be,but if a problem like this comes I will blindly write the answer as 15 is 3 times more than 5 because this is what my teachers told me and I am following it.
If you ask me about my opinion off the record I say
15 is 2 times more than 5
or
15 is 3 times of 5
Paper 3 - Section 2 - Chapter 4
In Paper 3,Section 2 chapter 4 the syllabus is as follows:
State finances and budgetary policy – tax structure, sharing central taxes, expenditure
pattern in revenue and capital account as well as plan and non-plan accounts. Public debt – composition - internal and external debt including World Bank loans.
For Budgetary Policy which is also called as fiscal policy we can go through the below document.
Statement of Fiscal Policy to be laid on the table of the A.P. State Legislature in August, 2009
If a brief description of Andhra Pradesh Budget is needed to you. Please go through the below attachment where you can find Budget in Brief of Andhra for this year's budget.
Budget in Brief 2009
Though I have refined notes on this chapter it will be very difficult for me to update here.I will try to upload it anyways.
I will post the expected questions in next posting.
Hope this is helpful.
State finances and budgetary policy – tax structure, sharing central taxes, expenditure
pattern in revenue and capital account as well as plan and non-plan accounts. Public debt – composition - internal and external debt including World Bank loans.
For Budgetary Policy which is also called as fiscal policy we can go through the below document.
Statement of Fiscal Policy to be laid on the table of the A.P. State Legislature in August, 2009
If a brief description of Andhra Pradesh Budget is needed to you. Please go through the below attachment where you can find Budget in Brief of Andhra for this year's budget.
Budget in Brief 2009
Though I have refined notes on this chapter it will be very difficult for me to update here.I will try to upload it anyways.
I will post the expected questions in next posting.
Hope this is helpful.
Thursday, September 17, 2009
Paper 3 - Poverty and Unemployment-Expected Questions
Expected questions:
1. Explain the methods of measuring poverty in India?
2. Explain the methods of measuring unemployment in India?
3. What are the properties that determine poverty and explain the reasons why poverty is a major economic issue in developing countries like India?
4. Explain the poverty estimates after independence and types of methods used for estimating poverty in developing and developed countries?
5. Explain why poverty did not reduce that level when compared to economic development Post-reform period?
6. What are the concepts used by NSSO for measuring unemployment and explain the different ways of unemployment in rural India?
7. Wage employment schemes, self employment schemes- which one does you think are the best to ameliorate poverty and unemployment?
8. Discuss the progress of NREGA and explain how this act helped in employment generation?
9. What are the steps need to be taken to improve employment opportunities?
10. What was done to ameliorate poverty?
11. What should be done to ameliorate poverty?
12. What is the status of poverty in India in pre- and post reform period?
13. What are the causes of unemployment?
14what was done to ameliorate unemployment?
15. What should be done to ameliorate unemployment?
15. Discuss NREGA , its implementation and its pros and cons?
16. What is the status of unemployment in India?
Wednesday, September 16, 2009
APPSC Papers 2008
Below are the links of question papers of Group one exam conducted in 2008. I am giving the links paper wise. I am trying to locate model question papers provided by APPSC before this exam. Though I have a paper copy I am trying to locate a e-copy of those papers and also prelims paper. Once I identify them I will notify here.
PAPER 1
PAPER 2
PAPER 3
PAPER 4
PAPER 5
GENERAL ENGLISH
Hope this will be helpful.
PAPER 1
PAPER 2
PAPER 3
PAPER 4
PAPER 5
GENERAL ENGLISH
Hope this will be helpful.
My Plan of preperation
Hi.. I will be uploading details as per the way I prepare and material I collect since it is not my own material or concepts almost every material will be from some source. I only keep them at one place here so that it will be a one point junction for all preparation material. You can ask me any doubts and clarifications in this matter.
As of now I am preparing for Paper 3 and Paper 5 for mains along with prelims. So we shall be having material and discussion on this areas particularly.
My findings will be pin point and will have information from examination point of view since our aim is to write stuff of 200 words with in given 10 minutes for a question with utmost matter we know. There should be no question of checking for words or answers while writing it.stick to the question and answer it.
As of now I am preparing for Paper 3 and Paper 5 for mains along with prelims. So we shall be having material and discussion on this areas particularly.
My findings will be pin point and will have information from examination point of view since our aim is to write stuff of 200 words with in given 10 minutes for a question with utmost matter we know. There should be no question of checking for words or answers while writing it.stick to the question and answer it.
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